The contemporary security landscape consists of complex interrelated threats that transcend national boundaries. Terrorism, violent extremism, cybercrime, organised crime, climate change, pandemics, maritime insecurity and geopolitical competition among others have blurred the line between domestic and external security.

Hence, it has become difficult for nation-states to secure their national interests through military means or domestic policies alone. Therefore, national security is no longer a state-centric concept but involves the application of political, diplomatic, economic, intelligence and military instruments in a strategic approach.

At the heart of such an approach lie National Security Strategy (NSS) and foreign policy. NSS offers the overall strategic orientation by establishing national interests, assessing threats and risks and coordinating national power instruments to ensure national sovereignty, territorial integrity and constitutional order.

On the other hand, foreign policy promotes national interests abroad through diplomacy, security/defence cooperation, economic engagement, intelligence collaboration and international alliances. Thus, it is obvious the two policy instruments complement each other in promoting national security and resilience.

Such a complementation is even more crucial in Africa. Many contemporary security threats in Africa are transnational and often relate to poor governance and development. The spread of violent extremism in the Sahel region, unconstitutional power transfers, maritime insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea, cyber threats, climate-induced insecurity and organised crime have made it evident the national security challenge cannot be solved through national actions only.

In other words, these issues need concerted national, regional and international efforts that incorporate security policies with active foreign policy. Besides, existing challenges, including poverty, youth unemployment, poor governance and environmental degradation, contribute to insecurity, pointing to the necessity of using people-centred approaches to national security.

This paper analyses the connection between NSS and foreign policy in Africa. The two approaches are conceptualised, and the connection is analysed from the perspectives of Realism, Liberal Institutionalism, Human Security Theory and Comprehensive Security Approach. The paper concludes by arguing African states should develop coherent, people-centred NSSs that align with their foreign policy frameworks to strengthen national resilience, regional stability and sustainable development.

Conceptualising National Security Strategy

A NSS is the highest strategic policy document through which a state defines its security vision, articulates its national interests, assesses its strategic environment, identifies threats and opportunities and outlines the policies, instruments and institutional arrangements required to safeguard those interests. It provides an overarching framework that aligns national security objectives with the coordinated application of diplomatic, military, intelligence, economic, legal and informational instruments of national power.

Consequently, a NSS is not a mere security or intelligence framework but a comprehensive whole-of-government strategy that integrates national security with governance, economic development, foreign policy and societal resilience. Considering the current environment of terrorism, violent extremism, cyber-attacks, organised crime, climate change, pandemics and great power competitions, there is an increase in the sphere of national security from security issues to other concerns such as institutional resilience, human security and cooperation with the international community. Therefore, modern NSSs take a holistic approach where state security and human security are included.

A successful NSS typically articulates a state’s vision, strategy and national interests, assesses threats and risks, identifies priority issues, allocates tasks and resources across institutions, strengthens international cooperation, and establishes mechanisms for whole-of-government coordination and implementation review.

As the supreme national strategic security document, NSS guides defence and intelligence, homeland security, foreign policy, crisis management and national development planning. It further helps ensure all institutions dealing with national security and governance work under a common strategic framework.

Conceptualising Foreign Policy

Foreign policy involves the ideas, goals and activities a country employs to regulate its interaction with other countries, international organisations and non-state actors in order to pursue its national interests. Foreign policy is part of statecraft, as it involves the management of international interactions and relationships by governments to ensure national security, economic prosperity and protection of sovereignty.

Additionally, foreign policy includes not only diplomacy but defence and security cooperation, international trade, economic development assistance, intelligence cooperation, public diplomacy and multilateralism. Contemporary foreign policy has been shaped by an increasingly globalised and complex world fraught with geopolitical rivalry, terrorism, cyberattacks, climate change, pandemics, migration and economic interdependence.

Thus, the modern foreign policy is based on a holistic approach and involves all possible types of foreign policy tools such as diplomacy, economics, military power and soft power to address both traditional and non-traditional security challenges.

Effective foreign policy articulates national priorities in the international arena, guides diplomacy, develops strategic relationships, helps prevent conflicts and facilitates international cooperation.

Being a key tool for regulating a country’s interaction with other countries and international organisations, foreign policy provides strategic guidance in diplomacy, international negotiations, defence diplomacy, economic cooperation, regional integration and multilateralism. Foreign policy ensures a country’s international actions are consistent with national priorities and can be used to build alliances, mobilise international support, deal with transnational threats and increase the influence of a country in the global arena.

Theoretical Perspectives Linking National Security Strategy and Foreign Policy

The relationship between NSS and foreign policy should be analysed in relation to international relations and security theories. The NSS offers the framework within which a country’s interests are defined and analysed along with threat assessment, while foreign policy is the main instrument for the pursuit of these interests in the international arena.

The interaction between these two instruments is particularly significant in Africa, where states increasingly confront transnational threats such as terrorism, violent extremism, organised crime, cyber insecurity, climate change and irregular migration. Four complementary theoretical perspectives – Realism, Liberal Institutionalism, Human Security Theory and the Comprehensive Security Approach – provide useful explanations for this nexus.

Realism provides the traditional foundation for understanding the relationship between national security and foreign policy. As analysed by Morgenthau and Waltz, the international system is marked by anarchy, as such, states must depend mainly on their own means to protect their sovereignty, territorial integrity and national interests.

The National Security Council (NSC), therefore, determines strategic threats and prioritises national security. On the other hand, foreign policy operationalises national security strategies through diplomatic relations, security and defence cooperation, intelligence collaboration and strategic alliances. In the African scenario, Morgenthau and Waltz explain the reason for increasing regional security cooperation in the face of terrorism and organised crime.

For instance, in their NSSs, Ghana and Nigeria have identified violent extremism, cyber threats, and organised crimes as some strategic threats which require both domestic readiness and international cooperation. This is evidenced by the active engagement of Ghana and Nigeria in ECOWAS security arrangements, which emphasises intelligence exchange, joint border operations and joint actions to address insecurity in the Sahel. In the light of liberalism, foreign policy becomes an extension of national security since the policy helps to create an environment that supports strategic interests and secures the state.

Liberal institutionalism suggests international cooperation enhances national security by diminishing uncertainties and fostering cooperative efforts in addressing common challenges.

Contrary to realism which views national security through military power, liberal institutionalism argues the state achieves their national security objectives through regional and international institutions, diplomacy and international law. In this case, NSS determines areas which require cooperation, whereas foreign policy facilitates engagement with various partners. Institutions such as the African Union (AU), ECOWAS, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) have established mechanisms for conflict prevention, peace operations, early warning and counter-terrorism cooperation.

The foreign policies of South Africa, Kenya, Ghana and other African states, which consistently emphasise multilateralism, peaceful coexistence and international cooperation, complement the NSSs of these states by strengthening regional partnerships and contributing to UN peace operations. Liberal Institutionalism, therefore, demonstrates effective national security increasingly depends upon cooperative regional and international engagements rather than unilateral action.

The Human Security Theory extends security to encompass individual safety and wellbeing against threats such as poverty, disease, environmental degradation, political instability and violent conflicts.This theory posits national security can be achieved only partially through the protection of state boundaries but must extend to dealing with the socio-economic factors responsible for insecurity.

As such, it has considerable relevance in the African context, where numerous security threats arise from such structural weaknesses as youth unemployment, poor governance, climate change, food insecurity and communal violence. Therefore, modern NSSs have incorporated human development, environmental conservation, disaster preparedness and economic resilience together with the more traditional defence strategies.

Likewise, foreign policy has transcended diplomacy to cover development cooperation, humanitarianism, climate and public health policies. Indeed, the NSS of Ghana identifies illegal mining, cybercrimes, environmental degradation, communal conflicts and economic insecurity as major national security issues. This highlights the theory’s emphasis on the importance of foreign policy in enhancing national security by harnessing the power of international cooperation and development to tackle the root causes of insecurity and not the effects.

The Comprehensive Security Approach embraces traditional and non-traditional elements of security in a strategic framework. It indicates contemporary threats are multi-dimensional and inter-connected, thus, requiring response co-ordination between government institutions and society.

NSSs, therefore, embrace defence, intelligence, diplomacy, economic, cybersecurity, environmental and public health strategies while foreign policy helps in doing the same through international cooperation. The current security situation in Africa highlights the relevance of this approach. In Africa, terrorism is interconnected with organised crime and trafficking; climate change results in migration and natural resource conflicts; cyberthreats jeopardise economies and critical infrastructure while pandemics highlight deficiencies in governance and public health facilities.

Such multi-faceted challenges require comprehensive whole-of-government co-ordination in domestic matters and international engagement. African initiatives illustrating the principles of comprehensive security include African Peace and Security Architecture, African Standby Force, ECOWAS Early Warning and Response Network (ECOWARN) and the Accra Initiative.

Moreover, the NSS of Ghana advocates comprehensive coordination involving defence, intelligence, law enforcement, disaster management and diplomatic agencies. This approach acknowledges national security is dependent not only on military strength but also on good governance, co-ordination, innovation and regional cooperation.

In sum, the connection between NSS and foreign policy finds explanation from the perspectives of Realism, Liberal Institutionalism, Human Security Theory and Comprehensive Security Approach. These theoretical approaches show national security and foreign policy reinforce each other as tools of governance. As such, effective NSSs in African states must be co-ordinated with foreign policy for regional cooperation, good governance, addressing transnational threats and sustainable development and peace. In the globalised era, it is essential to incorporate domestic security planning and international relations to secure national interests.

National Interests: Foundation of National Security Strategy and Foreign Policy

National interests are the key link between a NSS and foreign policy. They are the core values, principles and aims which nations strive to defend and support at home and abroad. While the NSS states national interests and outlines the measures required to achieve them, foreign policy is the main tool that helps to achieve them abroad. In other words, the two frameworks complement each other as one sets the goals and the other outlines the means to achieve the goals.

According to classical realists, national interests are the key determinants of state actions in the anarchic international order. From its traditional core elements which focus on sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence, the definition has been widened to embrace economic sustainability, democracy, human security, cybersecurity, environmental sustainability and technology. This means contemporary NSSs acknowledge national security goes beyond military security to include citizen safety and the prosperity of the nation.

Foreign policy embraces strategic alliances, international trade, regional integration and multilateral cooperation. It is clear from the African security environment how the three elements are closely related. Many of the security challenges of African states, including terrorism, violent extremism, transnational organised crime, maritime piracy, cybercrime, irregular migration and climate change, cannot be addressed through domestic measures alone.

NSSs prioritise these threats, while foreign policy establishes the diplomatic and institutional mechanisms required for regional and international cooperation. National interests, thus, become the strategic framework within which national security planning is coordinated with foreign relations.

For instance, the NSS of Ghana includes the following national interests: protection of constitutional democracy, territorial integrity, stability, economic growth and regional peace.These considerations are outlined in the foreign policy of Ghana, which seeks to ensure peaceful co-existence and multilateralism through the AU, ECOWAS and UN.

By sharing intelligence, joint border patrols, peace operations and mediation efforts, the country capitalises on its foreign policy to enhance its national security, while ensuring regional stability. Another example of this relationship is the rise in violent extremism in the Sahel Region. While terrorists operate mainly in Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger, neighbouring coastal states such as Ghana, Benin, Togo and Côte d’Ivoire consider this a direct threat to their national interests.

The NSSs of these nations accordingly emphasise border security, intelligence cooperation and counter-terrorism, and their foreign policies facilitate a coordinated response through regional security strategies. This shows the extent to which foreign policy expands the scope of national security by developing alliances that help in responding to common threats.

Similarly, economic security draws attention to the interplay of national interests, NSS and foreign policy in African states. Sustainable economic development is considered as a strategic national interest because of the benefits it offers.

As such, many African countries adopt economic resilience as an element of their NSSs, leveraging foreign policy to attract foreign direct investment and develop economic relations with other nations. The support extended to the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), headquartered in Accra, Ghana, is a perfect example of how foreign policy contributes to the security of a nation. In addition, the location of key offices of the UN in Kenya adds to this assertion.

Also, climate change and maritime insecurity increasingly influence both national security planning and foreign policy across Africa. Undoubtedly, climate change, migration, competition for natural resources and environmental degradation have made communal conflicts even more rampant in certain areas, while the threat posed by pirates, poaching and trafficking jeopardises economic activities in the Gulf of Guinea.

To counter these challenges, African countries are working towards incorporating climate change and maritime security into their NSSs and regional collaboration under the auspices of the AU and ECOWAS.

In a nutshell, it must be admitted national interests continue to constitute the major element which unites NSSs and foreign policies in African states. This is because national interests serve as the basis for the definition of strategic objectives, allowing for consistency between internal security measures and foreign policy. The alignment of foreign policy with NSS becomes especially essential in Africa where increasing interconnection of security issues necessitates both strengthening of regional collaboration and boosting national resilience to ensure sustainable peace and development.

Foreign Policy and National Security Objectives

Foreign policy strategy serves as the most important tool for the implementation of the stated NSS objectives of African states. As NSS defines the interests of nations and sets out threats and priorities, foreign policy seeks to implement these priorities by creating an external environment through diplomacy, defence relations, economic policies and multilateralism. Consequently, the two frameworks complement each other – NSS provides direction and foreign policy implements the direction.

In this respect, the increasingly complex nature of the international security environment reinforces this connection. In the contemporary world, such threats as terrorism, transnational organised crime, cybercrime, global warming, epidemics and illegal immigration require joint effort to counter them. This is the reason foreign policy has been extended from diplomacy to a critical means of fostering international collaboration and strategic partnerships.

The implementation of the NSS will, therefore, be greatly influenced by the capability of African states to utilise foreign policy to create the required international environment.

Diplomacy remains one of the major ways through which national security goals can be pursued through foreign policy. Countries avoid conflicts, achieve peaceful resolutions, improve their relations with other states and maintain stability through diplomacy. In African states, diplomacy remains crucial in conflict prevention and resolution. Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa, for instance, have continually advocated for peace in their neighbouring regions.

By promoting peaceful conflict resolution and democracy in the region, the foreign policies of such countries help strengthen the strategic objectives as stated in their NSS.

The role of foreign policy in enhancing national security is also enhanced through regional and international collaboration. Security issues in Africa, such as terrorism, piracy, organised crimes and illegal weapon trafficking, are becoming more transnational and, thus, require collaborative efforts.

The involvement of certain West African nations in the Accra Initiative from 2018 to 2024 provides a good example of how foreign policy assists in achieving national security goals through intelligence gathering, joint border patrols and counter-terrorism efforts among coastal West African nations.

Foreign policy contributed to national security through multinational security arrangements in the Lake Chad Basin where cooperation in the fight against Boko Haram and other extremism has improved.

Defence diplomacy is also a critical approach through which foreign policy is applied to achieve national security goals. Through military cooperation and defence agreements, military joint training and peace operation missions, operational capacity is improved along with improved diplomatic ties. The consistent contribution by countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, Senegal and Ghana to UN peace operations has improved the professionalism of the armed forces of these countries.

Smilarly, Rwanda has employed peace operations to achieve regional stability along with promoting its national interests.

Economic diplomacy is now an indispensable element of implementing national security policies. The process of sustainable economic development, trade and investments contributes to political stability and generates employment. This explains why economic objectives are included in the NSSs and foreign policies of African countries.

The endorsement of AfCFTA by African states is an acknowledgment of the fact that economic integration helps in achieving prosperity and minimising the structural factors that lead to insecurity.

In sum, foreign policy can be said to refer to the operational part of the NSS in that it translates security priorities into actions at the international level. Through diplomacy, regional cooperation, defence relations and economic diplomacy, foreign policy creates an environment which contributes to national security and promotes the interests of the nation.

Diplomacy: Tool for Preventing Security Threats

A pivotal role of foreign policy strategy in the achievement of national security goals is the application of diplomacy as a means of pre-empting threats that may result in violence. While NSSs are responsible for identifying threats to the national interest and setting out strategies that help counteract such threats, diplomacy becomes the main peaceful strategy through which states handle disagreements and develop a level of confidence in international cooperation to deal with emerging security challenges.

Instead of applying only military solutions and other means of ensuring security, preventive diplomacy is increasingly becoming recognised as an efficient way to guarantee national security.Dealing with the factors of insecurity from the outset through diplomacy minimises the chances of states opting for coercion. Therefore, foreign policy supports NSSs in creating a conducive international environment in safeguarding sovereignty, maintaining regional stability and securing national interests.

The African security environment highlights the increasing relevance of diplomacy as a preventive security tool. Contemporary security challenges such as violent extremism, unconstitutional overthrow of governments, civil conflicts, maritime insecurity, irregular migration and transnational organised crime transcend national boundaries and, therefore, require political cooperation to address them effectively. This way, diplomacy becomes increasingly a part of the NSSs of African countries.

Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Senegal and other democratic countries provide notable examples of preventive diplomacy in support of national security objectives. Consistent with its NSSs, the foreign policy of Ghana has traditionally emphasised peaceful coexistence, respect for international law and regional cooperation. Through active engagement within the ECOWAS, AU and the UN, Ghana, Senegal and Nigeria have contributed to mediation efforts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire and The Gambia.

These efforts have been successful in preventing broader regional instability that might have resulted in displacing people, crime and economic disturbances that could impact national security. This demonstrates how preventive diplomacy helps maintain regional peace while securing national interests by countering external threats that may affect domestic security.

The relevance of regional diplomacy can be evident especially in dealing with the rising insecurity in the Sahel region. The presence of violent extremist organisations in Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger threatens surrounding coastal nations. Instead of depending only on military solutions to deal with this issue, countries such as Ghana, Benin, Togo and Ivory Coast have resorted to diplomacy with the help of the Accra Initiative and ECOWAS.

The application of diplomacy helps states to achieve national security goals by bringing collective actions together to combat common challenges while minimising the risks of any nation engaging in unilateral actions which could destabilise the entire region.

Peaceful management of interstate conflicts through diplomacy is another way in which diplomacy supports national security in Africa. There have been several instances in Africa where diplomacy and mediation have ensured boundary disputes do not lead to military action. An example is the peaceful resolution of the maritime boundary dispute between Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS).

The mediation tools of the Panel of the Wise of the AU and ECOWAS remain relevant avenues for ensuring the existence and initiation of diplomatic dialogue for dealing with election-related violence and unconstitutional political transitions in Africa. In addition to preventing conflicts, diplomatic efforts have become an important tool to deal with certain emerging threats which countries face in their quest for security, including climate change, epidemics, cybercrime, and food security.

These initiatives prove the need for not only security readiness but also constructive engagement with other countries to secure effective national security.

In a nutshell, diplomacy is among the most powerful tools with which foreign policy can pursue national security goals, as it helps states to avoid conflicts, build cooperation, settle disputes and address insecurity.

Defence Diplomacy as a Supporting Mechanism for National Security

Defence diplomacy has grown to become an increasingly vital tool employed by states to achieve the aims of NSSs. Defence diplomacy involves military activities during times of peace, such as military exchanges, joint military training, professional military education and participation in peace support missions.

As opposed to normal military activities, defence diplomacy focuses on avoiding conflicts, developing mutual confidence, strengthening strategic partnerships and attaining regional stability through peaceful means. This makes defence diplomacy a key bridge between national security and foreign policy in the sense that military means are employed to achieve diplomatic and strategic goals without the use of force.

With the contemporary security environment becoming more transnational, many African states have realised national defence involves not only defending territorial expanses but also collaborating on the international stage on security matters. Defence diplomacy allows nations to influence the external security environment by creating confidence and building interoperability, which leads to stronger partnerships aimed at making nations more resilient to common threats such as terrorism, piracy, cybercrime and transnational organised crime.

In certain African states, defence diplomacy has emerged as an essential aspect of regional peace and security. With the spread of violent extremism in the Sahel region, insecurity in the Horn of Africa and maritime insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea, it has been established a single nation cannot deal with current security issues on its own. As a result, African nations apply defence diplomacy through the AU, ECOWAS, SADC and bilateral defence alliances to improve their collective security efforts. Ghana has recently established a Defence Cooperation outfit within the Ghana Armed Forces for pursuing defence diplomacy.

For instance, Ghana and Rwanda clearly depict how defence diplomacy helps achieve national security goals. In line with their NSS objectives and foreign policy stance, the two countries have been involved in UN peace operation missions over the years. Deployments by Ghana and Rwanda and other African countries to UN peace missions have enhanced the professionalism of their armed forces and improved their international image.

Involvement in multilateral peace operations further equips African militaries with experience in modern operational conditions, increases interoperability with other nations and builds diplomatic relationships that help secure the long-term security interests of these countries.

Defence diplomacy is not limited to military operations, as it also helps capacity development in areas such as professional military education, joint research activities and the creation of regional centres of excellence. Examples of such organisations include the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre in Ghana and the International Peace Support Training Centre in Kenya, which have helped develop the African expertise in peace operations, conflict prevention and security sector governance.[xxxiv]

Overall, defence diplomacy is an important tool for achieving the goals of national security and foreign policy. It facilitates military cooperation, confidence-building measures, peace operation missions and regional partnerships to avoid conflicts, improve capability and ensure collective security without armed struggles.

The Use of Economic Diplomacy to Enhance National Security

Economic diplomacy is one tool African nations employ to achieve their NSS and foreign policy objectives. It involves the application of diplomacy to foster trade relations, investments, development partnerships, technology transfer and the involvement in regional and international economic organisations. The contemporary security landscape, characterised by numerous security threats ranging from economic insecurity, food insecurity, climate change and insecurity of supply chains, requires the inclusion of economic diplomacy in NSSs and the application of same to address such challenges.

In line with Realism, economic strength is one factor that determines state power and influence. African states may apply economic diplomacy to obtain vital resources, access diverse markets, secure investments from abroad thereby bolstering their sovereign position.

Whereas Realism emphasises economic cooperation and integration and this potentially generates interdependence which leads to a security dilemma. Liberal institutions indicate economic cooperation and integration which helps to create interdependence and helps to decrease conflict and foster collective security. The AU, ECOWAS and AfCFTA are institutions built on the principles of economic cooperation and integration.

Human Security theory expands the link by the understanding that poverty, unemployment, inequality and hunger are factors that create instability. In this regard, economic diplomacy plays a part in national security in the sense that it generates investment, development aid and jobs.

Similarly, the Comprehensive Approach to Security considers economic resilience as part and parcel of national security, demanding the cooperation of economic, diplomatic and security institutions to bolster a country’s critical infrastructure, its supply chain systems and its resilience.

For African states, this link becomes clear. In their respective NSSs, Ghana and Nigeria have identified the need for sustainable economic development and regional integration as strategic interests. The case of Ghana and the AfCFTA indicates how the country’s foreign policy enhances national security through regional economic integration.

Economic diplomacy acts as a bridging mechanism between foreign policy and national security because it works towards achieving sustainable development through regional integration and economic resilience. Economic diplomacy enhances military, diplomatic and intelligence functions towards the achievement of long-term NSS goals.

Support of Foreign Policy Using Intelligence Cooperation

Intelligence cooperation has become a vital tool for achieving NSS goals through foreign policy. With security threats becoming more cross-border in nature, intelligence cooperation allows countries to anticipate threats and help make decisions regarding how to deal with threats from terrorism, transnational organised crime, cybercrime, piracy and violent extremism. Although NSS recognizes intelligence as an essential element of national security, foreign policy offers the diplomatic means to achieve intelligence cooperation with other nations and international organisations.

In Realism, intelligence remains a strategic resource that increases power and defends national interests in an anarchic international environment.States engage in selective cooperation to have early warning and deterrent capabilities regarding strategic awareness to address common threats. Liberal Institutionalism, on the other hand, stresses the fact that intelligence cooperation is increased through regional and international-level institutions that allow information exchange and coordination in dealing with transnational security threats.

This minimises uncertainty and enhances effectiveness in joint security operations. The Human Security theory expands the scope of intelligence from military threats to the provision of early warnings regarding pandemics, disasters from climate change, human trafficking, food shortages and organised crime that directly impact people’s lives.

Likewise, Comprehensive Security identifies intelligence as a cross-cutting function related to diplomacy, defence, law enforcement, borders and economics.

The African example is a clear demonstration of the significance of intelligence cooperation for foreign policy implementation and national security assurance. The diffusion of violent extremism in the Sahel region has inspired countries such as Ghana, Benin, Côte d’Ivoire and Togo work towards better cooperation within the Accra Initiative and ECOWAS frameworks.

This allows for the conduct of joint assessment of threats, border control and counterterrorism activities to prevent the spread of extremism across the West African coastal region. In turn, AU’s continental early warning systems and other intelligence cooperation systems are sources of strategic information for conflict prevention and resolution on the continent. This is clearly stated in the NSS of Ghana.

Through bilateral and multilateral cooperation in intelligence sharing, African countries can increase their ability to identify emerging threats and fight organised crime. The cooperation is even more crucial in dealing with cybersecurity threats, piracy in the Gulf of Guinea and cross-border crime groups which one country cannot counter on its own.

Strengthening National Security with Regional Integration

Regional integration has emerged as an important tool that enables African countries to achieve their NSS objectives. Since contemporary security challenges are increasingly becoming transboundary in nature, states can no longer depend on national strength alone for their security. Regional organisations and cooperative security provide opportunities for collective action to assist member countries in addressing security challenges ranging from terrorism and extremism to transnational crime, maritime piracy, cybercrime and migration.

Realism enhances regional integration to ensure states improve their security environment by engaging in collective efforts against possible threats without affecting state sovereignty. Through Liberal Institutionalism, regional organisations contribute to regional peace and stability through cooperation and confidence-building.

Institutions such as the AU, ECOWAS, SADC, EAC and IGAD, offer frameworks for conflict prevention, peacekeeping missions, early warning and response strategies to security threats in the region. The Human Security Theory widens this link by acknowledging several security threats such as poverty, hunger, pandemics, climate change and displacement cannot be handled by individual states.

Regional integration makes it possible to engage in collaborative efforts to enhance human security by tackling the root causes of insecurity. Similarly, the Comprehensive Security Approach views regional cooperation as necessary for the integration of defence, diplomacy, intelligence, law enforcement, development and environment management in response to multifaceted security challenges.

In Africa, the contribution of regional integration to national security abounds, where the NSSs of several states identify regional peace and cooperation as key national interests.Through ECOWAS and AU membership, many states have partnered neighbours in intelligence sharing, border patrols, election monitoring, mediation and counterterrorism activities to prevent the spread of violent extremism from the Sahel region.

ECOWAS has been instrumental in the restoration of constitutional governance in countries such as The Gambia and has assisted in conflict management in Liberia and Sierra Leone.Economic security is achieved through the creation of such mechanisms as AfCFTA that help improve trade and economic resilience on the continent.

Challenges: Policy Coherence between National Security Strategy and Foreign Policy

Despite the high level of interdependence between a NSS and foreign policy, African countries encounter several challenges regarding the development of a coherent relationship between the two. This is because, although the NSS offers an overall blueprint for the protection of the national interest and foreign policy offers the means through which such an interest is advanced abroad, many limitations prevent proper coordination between them.

Institutional fragmentation remains one major challenge. In many cases, institutions involved in foreign policy, defence, internal affairs, finance and national security do not coordinate policies and exchange information. Consequently, duplication of functions occurs, as well as lack of coherent responses to national and regional security challenges.

The second issue is the lack of strategic thinking and policy continuity. Changes in political leadership usually result in new foreign policy priorities that do not align with evaluation of the NSS. As a result, long-term national interests can be neglected in favour of short-term political interests. In addition, the fact that African countries fail to regularly conduct strategy reviews makes it difficult for them to address rapidly developing challenges such as cyber insecurity, climate change, artificial intelligence and violent extremism.

Resource and capacity limitations further make policy coherence difficult. African governments lack resources, technological expertise and qualified manpower in the diplomacy, intelligence and security sectors. Lack of resources and capacity hinders intelligence gathering, diplomatic engagement, border management, cybersecurity and criss management.

The other challenge is the evolving character of security challenges. In the contemporary world, security challenges have become cross-border in nature and perpetrated by both state and non-state actors. Challenges such as terrorism, transnational crime, maritime piracy, pandemics, irregular migration and climatic insecurity demand a combined response on both domestic and international levels. However, a most current policy primarily focuses on the state level and lack sectoral coordination.

Lastly, governance and accountability challenges also pose difficulties in the implementation of both NSSs and foreign policies in African states. Poor democratic oversight, corruption, politicisation of security agencies and lack of public participation can lower public trust and diminish the legitimacy of institutions. Effective and people-oriented security policies are possible through good decision-making processes, legislative oversight, respect for the rule of law and stakeholder engagement.

Tackling these challenges requires a change in strategy through governance integration. African states must ensure regular evaluation of their NSSs, coordinate ministries, align foreign policies with national security interests and work with regional organisations such as the AU and Regional Economic Communities. Through policy coherence, capacity building and the adoption of a whole-of-government and all-of-society approach, African governments can achieve their national security goals through foreign policies.

It is clear NSS and foreign policy are both complementary tools of statecraft which collectively protect and advance a nation’s interests. While the NSS outlines the country’s priorities, assesses threats and coordinates the tools of national power, foreign policy implements these priorities through diplomacy, defence cooperation, economic interactions, intelligence coordination and regional integration. Perspectives based on Realism, Liberal Institutionalism, Human Security Theory and Comprehensive Security approach all point to the same conclusion.

Contemporary security threats of terrorism, violent extremism, cyber insecurity, organised crime, climate change and unconstitutional change of government have become multidimensional and transnational. Thus, addressing these threats requires coordinated national, regional and international efforts. Nonetheless, institutional fragmentation, lack of institutional coordination, insufficient resources, emerging security challenges and poor governance hinder the integration of NSSs and foreign policies in most African countries.

To resolve these issues, African nations must formulate coherent and people-centred NSSs. The formulation process should consider foreign policies as well as the development agenda of the state. The security strategy must be formulated based on clear national interests and should be inclusive. Defence, intelligence, diplomacy, economic development, climate change and cybersecurity must all be integrated into a comprehensive strategic plan.

Achieving sustainable national security in African states cannot be done solely by securing state sovereignty and territorial integrity. It requires good governance, human security, development and institutional resilience as well. The combination of an efficient NSS complemented by a strategic foreign policy ensures sustainable peace, security and development.

Emmanuel Wekem KOTIA is a retired Major General of the Ghana Armed Forces with over 41 years of distinguished military service. Kotia chaired the working group that drafted the first National Security Strategy of Ghana which was launched in the year 2020.

He is currently a consultant in strategy, security, and defence, and a respected international security analyst, lecturer, and speaker with expertise in international security/politics, peace operations, intelligence governance, and border management. He is the Founding Commissioner-General of the Ghana Boundary Commission and holds a First-Class BA in Political Science and a PhD in Political Science from the University of Ghana, as well as an MSc in Global Security from Cranfield University, United Kingdom.

He has taught International Security and Conflict Management at Kennesaw State University (USA) and the University of Bedfordshire (UK). Emmanuel Kotia has extensive United Nations peacekeeping experience, having served in missions in Lebanon, Liberia, Western Sahara, Cambodia, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. He has published widely on peace operations, terrorism, intelligence oversight, security and democratic governance, and security studies. His book, Ghana Armed Forces in Lebanon and Liberia Peace Operations, is widely used in postgraduate studies.

He currently serves as an Adjunct Lecturer at the University of Ghana School of Law and the University of Professional Studies, Accra, where he teaches courses in national security, peace, security, and intelligence. His forthcoming books, to be published by Bloomsbury Publishing (USA), are National Security Frameworks for African States and Establishing National Boundary Institutions in Africa.

Email: [email protected]

Website: Emmanuel Kotia (emmakotia.org)