National security has evolved beyond the traditional protection of state sovereignty to encompass governance, human security, sustainable development, and institutional resilience. Ghana’s National Security Strategy (NSS), launched in 2020, reflects this broader understanding by providing a comprehensive framework for safeguarding the country’s constitutional order, territorial integrity, democratic governance and socio-economic development.

This paper examines how the NSS can be utilised as a strategic instrument for promoting good governance, peace, and national stability. Drawing upon Realism, Human Security Theory, Security Sector Governance, Securitisation Theory, Resilience Theory and the Whole-of-Government approach, the study argues that the Strategy integrates security and development by addressing both traditional threats, such as terrorism, organised crime and border insecurity, and non-traditional challenges, including food insecurity, energy security, climate change, cyber threats, public health emergencies and economic vulnerability.

Using examples from Ghana, including election security, the prevention of violent extremism, the response to illegal mining, and regional security cooperation, the paper demonstrates that effective implementation of the NSS can strengthen democratic institutions, improve inter-agency coordination, enhance public trust, and build national resilience.

The study further identifies institutional, financial, and political challenges affecting implementation and proposes policy measures to improve coordination, accountability, periodic review, and citizen participation. It concludes that the National Security Strategy of Ghana represents a comprehensive governance framework capable of promoting sustainable peace and national stability when implemented through a coordinated, people-centred and accountable Whole-of-Government approach.

The understanding of national security has shifted from the traditional notion of safeguarding national sovereignty and territorial integrity through military might to a much wider definition that incorporates governance, economic development, human security and national resilience.

The security challenges confronting states today, such as violent extremism, organised crime, cybercrime, climate change, diseases, food insecurity and economic instability indicate national security is directly connected to the quality of public institutions and citizen welfare. It is, therefore, no surprise that many nations now use National Security Strategies (NSSs) as an integrated means of addressing security concerns.

Ghana’s National Security Strategy (NSS) 2020, themed A Secure and Prosperous Ghana, with Regional, Continental and Global Reach and Influence, is the country’s first-ever extensive national security framework.

The strategy adopts the Whole-of-Government and Whole-of-Society approach to national security with the view that sustainable security cannot be achieved without collective efforts among stakeholders – the state, civil society, local and business communities and the citizenry. Issues identified by the strategy include good governance, conflict prevention, counterterrorism, border security, economic resilience, energy, food, health and environmental security.

This paper analyses Ghana’s NSS and provides the basis for the understanding that it is not just a defence, law enforcement or intelligence strategy but rather a strategic governance approach aimed at ensuring peace, democracy and national stability.

By relying on the perspectives of Realism, Human Security Theory, Security Sector Reform and Resilience Theory, the paper highlights the contribution of the Strategy regarding the promotion of good governance, security of the citizenry, economic development, environmental sustainability and institutional resilience. The paper provides insights into the major issues influencing the effective implementation of the Strategy and recommends policies that would improve its effectiveness.

Theoretical framework

The relevance of Ghana’s NSS for promoting good governance, peace and national stability is best understood through an integrated theoretical framework that combines Realism, Human Security Theory, Security Sector Reform (SSR) and Resilience Theory.

These complementary perspectives recognise contemporary national security transcends the traditional protection of the state to the security of citizens, democratic governance, institutional effectiveness and the capacity of society to withstand and recover from complex threats.

Ghana’s NSS demonstrates such a multi-dimensional approach by incorporating all aspects of security, including military, political, economic, social, environmental and technological into one strategy.

Realism is the basis of national security as it focuses on the security of the state in terms of its sovereignty, territory and interests. From a realist perspective, the core function of the state is to protect its sovereignty from both internal and external threats through effective defence system. Realism helps to understand why the NSS stresses the relevance of border security, counterterrorism, intelligence sharing, maritime security and critical national infrastructure.

Ghana’s efforts in preventing the spread of violent extremism from the Sahel through the country’s border control and intelligence sharing systems proves the relevance of Realism in ensuring state sovereignty. On the other hand, although Realism offers an adequate explanation on state survival, it provides inadequate insight on tackling the socio-economic and governance issues which are central to security.

To fill these gaps, the Human Security Theory expands the notion of security by prioritising individuals and communities in security policies. This is because the theory is more concerned about security against fear, deprivation and humiliation through the provision of food, health services, education, employment, environment and political freedom.

Ghana’s NSS embodies this people-centric approach because it understands issues such as hunger, youth unemployment, climate-induced environmental degradation, health crises, cybercrime and conventional military threats can destabilise the nation. Human Security, thus, highlights sustained peace requires not only the safety of the state but also the improved well-being of the people.

In the development of the NSS, a critical consideration is the principle of Security Sector Reform (SSR), which entails the professionalisation, accountability and democratic control of the security institutions. In Ghana, the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168) enhances institutional coordination by clarifying the mandate of the National Security Council, the intelligence agencies, the Regional Security Councils (REGSECs) and the District Security Councils (DISECs).

The successful operation of the NSS, however, is not only contingent upon operational effectiveness, but also upon professionalism, transparency and public confidence. Democratic accountability by the Legislature, the Judiciary and statutory institutions add legitimacy to the security establishment and fosters political stability.

Lastly, the Resilience Theory adds value to the above theories, as it highlights the ability of states and societies to foresee, withstand, adapt to and overcome crises. In the contemporary world of national security, such threats as climate change, epidemics, cyber threats, terrorism and natural disasters may be impossible to prevent; thus, resilience is critical for maintaining peace and continuity of governance.

Resilience is included within Ghana’s NSS, covering disaster preparedness, critical infrastructure protection, climate change adaptation, cybersecurity and public health preparedness. For instance, the response to COVID-19 and the Akosombo Dam spillage revealed the need for an institution with the capability of providing essential services in emergency conditions. Ghana’s NSS builds institutional capacity for absorbing shocks, protecting national interests and safeguarding the well-being of the citizenry.

Overview and strategic context of the national security strategy of Ghana

The NSS 2020 of Ghana is the overarching strategy for protecting the state, institutions, citizens and national interests. The NSS emerged in response to the dynamic nature of the security environment in Ghana, the region and on the international stage. This Strategy aims at consolidating fragmented security policies into a coherent and integrated national security framework. The Strategy was informed by the Constitution of Ghana, development goals and the mandates of regional and international organisations such as ECOWAS, AU and the UN.

The strategic environment of the NSS is characterised by the awareness that the contemporary security situation of Ghana can no longer be conceptualised in terms of its military or law enforcement aspects. In the region, the proliferation of violent extremist organisations in the Sahel, especially in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, has exacerbated the danger of terrorism spill-over, arms trafficking, illegal migration and organised crime.

In the Gulf of Guinea, piracy, illegal fishing, maritime crime and the security of offshore petroleum infrastructures are gaining national security significance. On the global scale, the threats of cybercrime, pandemics, economic shock, disinformation and climate change are adding up to the vulnerabilities of states and societies.

Domestically, the challenges include election-related tensions, chieftaincy and communal conflicts, illegal mining, environmental degradation, youth unemployment, cyber fraud, health crises and stresses to food and energy supply systems. This illustrates a variety of sources of insecurities that can be associated with poor governance, economic marginalisation, environmental pressure and ineffective inter-agency coordination.

Considering all these factors, the NSS states the country’s long-term goal is “a secure and prosperous Ghana, with regional, continental and global reach and influence”. The Strategy identifies sovereignty, territorial integrity, constitutional democracy, national unity, critical infrastructure, economic development and citizen well-being as the core national interests.

The Strategy emphasises prevention and early warning, intelligence-led decision-making, crisis preparedness and institutional resilience. The implementation of the Strategy requires the Whole-of-Government and Whole-of-Society approach, including security institutions, “government ministries, local governments, traditional authorities, civil society, academia, private sector and communities.”

The institutional framework is complemented by the Constitution of Ghana and the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168), which stipulate the establishment of the National Security Council, security and intelligence agencies, Regional Security Councils and District Security Councils.

The national security strategy as a framework for good governance

Good governance remains one critical foundation of sustainable national security. Modern security research indicates the root causes of insecurity often lie in poorly-organised and dysfunctional institutions.The NSS demonstrates this by prioritising the role of democratic governance, the rule of law and institutional coordination and accountability in leading national security.

According to the Strategy, there is a need to protect the state and maintain peace through strong public institutions capable of delivering security, justice and socio-economic development fairly and openly.

Firstly, one major benefit of the NSS to good governance is the adoption of constitutional democracy and the rule of law as the guiding framework of national security. The Strategy states the pursuit of national security should be conducted based on the 1992 Constitution of Ghana.

This guarantees security agencies are operating in civilian control while observing basic human rights and democratic principles. In addition, this makes state institutions stronger and builds citizen trust towards government since security agencies work for the welfare of the citizenry and not for the ruling party. Thus, the Strategy integrates the concepts of national security and good governance and constitutional democracy.

Secondly, the NSS ensures good governance through the Whole-of-Government approach. Since emerging security threats have different dimensions, the Strategy demands all ministries, departments and agencies to collaborate on policy coordination and joint implementation of national security priorities. This means the Strategy is not limited to the activities of the security and intelligence agencies but includes agencies working in finance, education, health, agriculture, energy, environment, local government and technology.

For instance, Ghana is taking steps to counter emerging violent extremism along its northern borders. Instead of deploying the military, the government has adopted a holistic strategy through the ministries of Interior, Defence, Education, Food and Agriculture and Local Government in collaboration with Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs), traditional leaders, civil society groups and development partners. The United Nations Development Program has acknowledged the NSS of Ghana and the National Framework for Prevention and Countering of Violent Extremism as crucial platforms to coordinate the holistic response.

The NSS further advances good governance through institutional accountability and more effective security sector governance. Good national security requires competent and accountable security institutions operating within legal mandates. The promulgation of the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168) supports the NSS in defining the mandates of the National Security Council, intelligence agencies and other security agencies.

This eliminates duplication of mandates. Besides, legislative oversight, judicial review and constitutional bodies such as the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice ensure security institutions remain accountable to the Constitution and citizens.

Another area where the NSS supports good governance is decentralisation of local security governance. REGSECs and DISECs constitute channels through which national security policies are implemented locally. These institutions coordinate intelligence-sharing, conflict prevention, disaster preparedness and crisis response and enable coordination among local governments, traditional authorities and security institutions.

Their participation in managing communal conflicts, electoral security, environmental crimes and disasters illustrates how decentralised governance directly contributes to national peace and security. For instance, REGSECs and DISECs have been involved in responding to the prolonged Bawku conflict in the Upper East Region of Ghana through intelligence gathering, security operations, mediation assistance and stakeholder consultations.

Equally, collective effort involving government, traditional authorities and the National Peace Council was key to the implementation of the Dagbon Peace Roadmap in the Northern Region of Ghana. Good governance involves a combination of security operations and dialogue and mediation processes.

Furthermore, the NSS acknowledges citizen participation is crucial for good governance. The Whole-of-Society approach of the NSS encourages collaboration among traditional authorities, religious groups, civil society, academia, media and private sector.

This partnership enhances public trust, early warning mechanisms and policy implementation. Communities participate by identifying security challenges, building social cohesion and preventing conflicts instead of receiving security service from the government passively. Citizen participation is in line with democratic governance.

Lastly, the Strategy bolsters good governance through the integration of transparency, national cohesion and inclusive development into the national security policy. Corruption, political exclusion, unemployment, inequality and poor service delivery may give rise to public grievances and reduce public confidence, thus, fuelling insecurity.

Consequently, the NSS calls for prudent economic management, universal education, food security, health, environment and youth empowerment as core components of national security.

The national Security Strategy as a Framework for Peace and Political Stability

Expanding upon its function as a good governance framework, the NSS promotes peace and political stability through democracy building, conflict prevention and national cohesion. The Strategy recognises sustainable peace extends beyond the absence of armed conflict to include constitutional governance, effective public institutions, social justice, the rule of law and inclusive socio-economic development.

The Strategy, thus, takes a preventive and people-centred approach incorporating intelligence, conflict prevention, mediation, development and coordination among institutions to deal with both the symptoms and root causes of insecurity.

Conflict prevention and early warning are critical aspects of the NSS since they involve intelligence-led decision-making regarding early warning. Unlike the situation where response is triggered only during violence, the NSS advocates for the constant monitoring of the political and socio-economic trends that potentially lead to the outbreak of violence.

The intelligence community working with REGSECs, DISECs, local government authorities and other stakeholders are supposed to detect emerging challenges and undertake preventive action. This aligns with the UN’s view that prevention is the best way of maintaining peace.

The NSS also plays a crucial role in ensuring electoral security and constitutional stability. In Ghana, many successful elections have been held in the Fourth Republic, which have earned the country the reputation of being one of the stable democracies in Africa.

Nevertheless, elections still bring about potential security threats associated with political polarisation, misinformation, vigilantism and results controversies. Hence, the Strategy calls for proper election security planning that involves such bodies as the Electoral Commission, Ghana Police Service, Ghana Armed Forces, intelligence services, National Peace Council, political parties and civil society organisations. This reduces violence during elections while ensuring the protection of citizens’ rights.

The Strategy also ensures conflicts relating to communal issues and chiefdoms receive peaceful resolutions, since these issues persistently constitute domestic security threats. Ghana has witnessed conflicts related to disputes over traditional leadership, land ownership and local governance, especially in Dagbon and Bawku.

The successful implementation of the Dagbon Peace Roadmap, through collaboration among the government and security agencies, National Peace Council and traditional authorities, indicates a blend of dialogue and security can result in stabilisation. However, the persistent conflicts in Bawku are examples of how, although security deployment may be a temporary solution, sustained peace cannot be achieved without resolving historical grievances and strengthening local governance.

Additionally, the NSS has adopted a holistic strategy to deal with threats related to terrorist activities, thereby contributing to the attainment of political stability. The growing number of extremist groups in the Sahel region has created possibilities for their activities to spread to other coastal West African countries, including Ghana.

The new strategy is a combination of intelligence gathering, border security and regional cooperation, as well as social and economic development. The NSS is even more relevant with the involvement of Ghana in the Accra Initiative, which is an important step in the development of cooperation in intelligence gathering and management of common borders.

Finally, the NSS builds national unity and inclusive participation through the Whole-of-Society approach. The NSS indicates sustainable peace requires the engagement of traditional leaders, religious leaders, women, youth groups, civil society, academia, businesses and communities in peace education, mediation, early warning, conflict resolution and resilience.

Public security, intelligence and counterterrorism

Considering the contribution of NSS in fostering peace and political stability in the country, the success of the NSS relies upon the ability of the state to protect citizens from crime, terrorism, violent extremism and other human security challenges. As a result, the NSS identifies public security, intelligence and counterterrorism as key components of the framework required to ensure constitutional democracy, respect for human rights and security of the nation.

Public security remains a core responsibility of the state because it creates the stable environment necessary for democratic governance, economic development and social wellbeing. The NSS recognises increasing urbanisation, cybercrime, transnational organised crime, arms trafficking, drug trafficking and violent extremism require coordinated responses involving the Ghana Police Service, Ghana Armed Forces, intelligence agencies, Ghana Immigration Service, Customs Division of the Ghana Revenue Authority, Ghana National Fire Service and other security institutions.

Rather than allowing these agencies to operate independently, the Strategy promotes joint planning, intelligence sharing and unified command arrangements through the National Security Council, REGSECs and DISECs, thereby improving operational efficiency and reducing institutional fragmentation.

A key aspect of the NSS is the principle of intelligence-led security governance. Modern security threats have a tendency of developing over time and are often not identifiable through traditional means of policing. In this regard, intelligence presents an avenue through which threats are predicted, and strategic decisions made while averting any crisis.

The Strategy further facilitates the coordinating function of the National Security Council, as well as collaboration among the Bureau of National Intelligence, National Signals Bureau and other specialised intelligence agencies established by the Security and Intelligence Agencies Act, 2026 (Act 1168).

Additionally, the Strategy recognises the importance of building public trust and community participation in intelligence gathering processes. Citizens, traditional leaders, religious figures and non-governmental organisations may have certain vital intelligence regarding emerging grievances and security challenges.

The NSS emphasises the importance of engaging communities and fostering partnerships between security agencies and communities to improve early warning systems. This strategy corresponds to international best practices as they indicate intelligence works best when communities see security agencies as professional, impartial and respecting human rights. Thus, public confidence becomes a strategic asset of intelligence gathering processes.

The NSS serves as the overall strategy for counterterrorism in Ghana. The deterioration of the security situation in the Central Sahel, particularly in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, has significantly increased the risk of terrorist spillover into coastal West African states. Although Ghana has not experienced a major terrorist attack, the Strategy recognises the country’s northern border regions remain vulnerable to extremist infiltration, arms trafficking and cross-border criminal networks.

As such, the NSS employs a preventive strategy that involves not only improved border security and intelligence but also making the communities resilient, educating the youth and creating jobs for them and initiating other developmental efforts. The strategy is backed by the National Framework of Ghana for the Prevention and Countering of Violent Extremism and Terrorism.

The NSS also appreciates the significance of cybercrime and digital security components of public security. More specifically, cybercrime, financial crime, identity theft and attack on critical information infrastructure increasingly threaten national stability and economic confidence. Considering the above, the Strategy emphasises the need for cooperation among the Cyber Security Authority (CSA), intelligence and law enforcement agencies and the private sector.

Border Security and Regional Stability

Expanding the concepts of public security, intelligence and counterterrorism, the issue of border security remains an important component of the NSS of Ghana. Border security is essential for ensuring state sovereignty and territorial integrity.

In an era characterised by transnational terrorism, organised crime, irregular migration, arms trafficking and cybercriminal networks, border security has evolved beyond traditional immigration control to become a comprehensive national security function involving intelligence, diplomacy, law enforcement and international cooperation.

Ghana shares approximately 2,093 kilometres of land boundary with Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire and Togo, together with an extensive maritime boundary in the Gulf of Guinea. These borders support economic integration, free movement of persons and regional commerce under ECOWAS protocols.

However, these borders also expose the country to transnational security threats, including terrorism, human trafficking, narcotics trafficking, arms smuggling, illegal migration and cross-border criminal activities. Considering this, the NSS recognises the importance of effective border governance in ensuring peace and political stability in Ghana, without compromising its economic and diplomatic interests.

The NSS utilises an integrated border management strategy, comprising intelligence, surveillance, law enforcement, customs management, immigration control, military and diplomacy. The Whole-of-Government approach entails the engagement and coordination of several state agencies, including the Ghana Immigration Service, Ghana Armed Forces, Ghana Police Service, intelligence agencies, Customs Division and Ghana Maritime Authority.

Given the increasingly volatile security environment in the Central Sahel region, especially Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, the strategic significance of Ghana’s northwestern border has become even greater. The proliferation of extremist groups operating within the influence of Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM) and Islamic State Sahel Province (ISSP) has raised alarm bells about the potential for terrorism to spread to coastal West African nations through such activities as militant infiltration, radicalisation, arms trafficking and recruitment of foreign militants into coastal countries. While there have been no terrorist attacks in Ghana, the NSS acts prudently by adopting a proactive stance towards securing the country’s borders.

One distinctive feature of Ghana’s strategy is that border security is not considered as an issue purely of a military nature. This conforms to the National Framework on the Prevention and Countering of Violent Extremism and Terrorism, where the NSS ensures integration of border security with local development, education, youth employment and community resilience. Border communities are often the first line of defence against security threats since they are aware of suspicious activities happening within their jurisdiction.

The NSS understands the link between regional stability and Ghana’s security as well. Modern security challenges are transnational, hence, requiring a concerted regional-level response. Ghana is among the countries actively participating in the Accra Initiative, which is aimed at improving the cooperation among coastal West African states in countering the southward spread of violence from the Sahel.

Similarly, Ghana continues to cooperate with the ECOWAS and the AU in promoting regional peace and security. ECOWAS provides mechanisms for early warning, conflict prevention, mediation and coordinated responses to transnational organised crime monitoring terrorism and unconstitutional changes of government. This indicates the security and stability of neighbouring countries have direct implications on the national security and prosperity of Ghana.

Maritime security is another important component of regional stability. Ghana’s offshore oil reserves, maritime shipping lanes, fisheries and ports are crucial elements that contribute to economic growth. However, the Gulf of Guinea persistently faces threats from piracy, armed robbery at sea, illegal fishing, trafficking and maritime pollution.

The NSS, therefore, promotes maritime domain awareness, intelligence sharing and coordinated naval operations involving the Ghana Navy, Marine Police, Fisheries Commission and regional maritime partners. The involvement of Ghana in the Yaoundé Architecture for Maritime Security has strengthened collective efforts in maritime trade protection and the safety of crucial offshore facilities.

The NSS recognises regional integration plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of stability. Ghana has supported economic cooperation and connectivity by virtue of its adherence to the ECOWAS Protocol on the Free Movement of Persons and the AfCFTA. Through this, Ghana improves security and ensures economic integration.

The National Security Strategy as a Framework for Economic Security

Even though border security keeps Ghana safe from external aggression, national stability depends on the resilience and prosperity of its economy. Ghana’s NSS considers economic security as one key pillar of national security. The Strategy states constant economic development, stability, employment and resilient economic sectors are essential for maintaining peace and good governance.

Unlike other approaches that separate economic development from national security, the NSS recognises economic security as the foundation for the provision of public goods, supporting the security apparatus and enabling resistance to security threats – whether internal or external.

Currently, there is growing understanding that economic instability poses a major threat to national security. Inflation, public debts, unemployment, supply chain risks, corruption and external economic shocks pose a major threat to national security. The capability of the state to guarantee economic stability, protect strategic assets and secure essential resources against internal and external risks forms part of economic security. Ghana’s NSS demonstrates this general perspective by incorporating economic resilience into the security approach.

One key contribution of the NSS is the focus on macroeconomic stability as an essential element of national security. Economic instability may dwindle faith in the government, limit the ability to invest in security and social amenities and render the country vulnerable to criminal and terrorist attacks.

Recent economic challenges such as inflation, fluctuations in exchange rates and the need for restructuring the country’s debts have demonstrated economic instability has consequences on the stability of the nation. Therefore, the NSS calls for prudent fiscal management, increased revenue mobilisation, economic diversification and the development of the private sector.

Economic opportunities, especially job creation, are increasingly recognized as essential to national security. Ghana possesses a youthful population whose productive engagement represents both an opportunity and a governance imperative.

Persistent youth unemployment and underemployment potentially increase vulnerability to organised crime, cyber fraud, political violence and violent extremist recruitment. Consequently, the Strategy provides for investments in agriculture, industrialisation, entrepreneurship, digitisation and vocational training to increase job opportunities while fostering economic resilience.

Recent literature on the subject insists the coordination of youth employment programmes is crucial for increasing their effectiveness and overcoming structural unemployment. Another aspect of economic security is the protection of economic resources and critical infrastructure.

Ports, airports, petroleum facilities, banks, transportation routes, digital infrastructure and energy infrastructure represent crucial elements of economic success in Ghana. Interruption of operations of this infrastructure due to organised crime, cyber-attacks, sabotage or terrorism have a negative impact on trade, investments and revenue generation. The NSS focuses on the integrated protection of critical infrastructure through cooperation among security forces, regulatory bodies and the private sector.

Furthermore, the Strategy emphasises economic governance and anti-corruption policies as critical components of national security. Corruption weakens institutions, creates a disincentive to invest and lowers government revenue.

Through effective governance, the NSS helps create efficiency in the utilisation of public funds and builds public trust in government institutions. Economic governance, hence, works hand in hand with economic growth through the creation of an enabling environment for investments.

It is equally important to note that the NSS underscores the significance of economic resilience to external changes. This was proven during COVID-19 and the disruption of international supply chains and international energy/commodity prices.

Therefore, the Strategy promotes economic diversification, robust supply chain management, manufacturing capacity and protection against future crises. Likewise, the OECD emphasises the importance of ensuring economic security by protecting strategic sectors and safeguarding trade and investment streams from any disruption in geopolitics and economics.

Regional economic integration also works in favour of Ghana’s economic security through ECOWAS and AfCFTA. Ghana aims to facilitate trade growth in Africa, attract investments and develop regional value chains through these institutions.

Economic cooperation contributes to this development and ensures economic security by creating jobs, developing infrastructure and fostering legal cross-border economic activities. Thus, economic integration and national security complement each other in their objectives.

Finally, the NSS of Ghana indicates economic security and national security are two sides of one coin. Through macroeconomic stability, job creation, critical economic infrastructure protection, good governance and regional economic cooperation, the Strategy enhances the ability of the country to cope with economic disruptions as well as contributes to peace, good governance and sustainable development.

Energy security is another pillar that must be considered for the purposes of protecting Ghana’s national security. This is because uninterrupted and cost-effective energy supply is crucial for the operations of industries, delivery of services, healthcare, transport, information infrastructure and military operations. It means disruptions in energy production or supply can have serious implications for the country’s economic development, confidence and stability.

Energy security is the continuous availability of energy at affordable prices, ensuring reliability, affordability and sustainability. Recent geopolitical conflicts and disruptions in the global energy market have demonstrated that resilient and diverse energy sources constitute an important aspect of national security. The ability of Ghana to generate and distribute its own electricity and supply petroleum and fuel is crucial.

The NSS recognises Ghana’s energy sector is part of the country’s critical infrastructure. Key installations such as the Akosombo, Kpong and Bui hydroelectric dams, offshore petroleum facilities, gas plants, power grid systems and fuel storage facilities are critical infrastructure assets which, when disrupted, may negatively impact public administration, healthcare services, telecommunications, banking services, transport services and national defence.

Therefore, the NSS provides for the protection of these assets through joint efforts by the Ministry of Energy, Ghana Armed Forces, Ghana Police Service, intelligence agencies, Volta River Authority, Ghana Grid Company and Ghana National Petroleum Corporation.

The Strategy further emphasises the significance of energy diversification and resilience. While Ghana has achieved successes by increasing hydro, thermal, natural gas and renewable energy production, reliance on few energy sources or fuel imports could render the country vulnerable to energy interruptions and fluctuating international prices.

Diversified energy systems are often more resilient due to fewer vulnerabilities from geopolitical challenges, supply chain challenges and severe weather conditions. Therefore, the NSS advocates for investments in renewable energy, use of natural gas domestically, energy efficiency and energy transmission to enhance energy security.

One other important aspect covered by the NSS is energy governance and financial sustainability. Well-managed energy institutions, effective regulation and sustainable energy utilities are essential to guarantee efficient service delivery and attract investments. One current reform being pursued under the Energy Sector Recovery Programme aims at enhancing the operations and finances of electricity distribution utilities, decreasing system losses and increasing the sustainability of the sector.

The World Bank observes that increasing revenue collection, performance and good governance of the sector improve reliability and quality of electricity and decreases the financial cost of energy sector operations. This aligns with the goals of the NSS in building institutional resilience and ensuring national economic security.

Moreover, the NSS recognises the rising significance of cybersecurity in securing energy infrastructure. With digitisation of electricity generation, transmission and distribution networks, efficiency has been enhanced but also increased the vulnerability to cyberattacks on supervisory control systems and critical information infrastructure. As a result, the Strategy calls for a strong collaboration among the CSA, intelligence agencies, energy organisations and private organisations to build cyber resilience and manage risks.

 Food Security and Agriculture

Considering the need for energy security for economic productivity and sustainability, food security and agriculture are identified as an important component of Ghana’s NSS. Food security is a vital consideration in terms of national stability since it encompasses the well-being and productivity of the people. However, in cases where there is no food security, poverty, migration, tribal conflicts and political instability occur.[45]

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), food security is a condition in which all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary requirements for a healthy and active life.

However, according to the FAO’s State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024, conflicts, climate change, economic instability and lack of investments have become a threat to global food security, especially Africa. These developments underscore the need to incorporate agriculture and food systems into NSSs.

The NSS acknowledges agriculture remains a strategic sector in Ghana’s economy. It is a major source of employment for many people, a contributor to national food production, facilitates agro-industrial development and exports through such agricultural products as cocoa, cashew and horticultural produce. This means disruptions in agricultural production by climate change, pests, diseases, environmental pollution and insecurity will impact the country’s economic growth.

Furthermore, the NSS focuses on enhancing resilience in the agricultural sector. Due to climatic changes such as irregular rainfall, prolonged droughts, floods and warming temperatures in northern Ghana, agricultural production has been significantly impacted over the years. As a result, these climatic factors reduce agricultural production and affect livestock and water resources. The NSS encourages resilient agricultural practices to withstand environmental impacts such as the adverse effects of climate change.

The document also acknowledges environmental degradation caused by small-scale mining is now a major threat to food security. Small-scale mining results in loss of fertile agricultural lands and destruction of water bodies.

Deforestation and unsustainable land use practices have made it difficult to maintain soil fertility. To address these challenges, inter-sectoral cooperation and coordination are required among the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Agency, Water Resources Commission, security agencies and local authorities.

Another critical aspect of the NSS is the promotion of rural development and agricultural livelihoods. The rural economy continues to depend upon agriculture, thus, any effort to develop rural livelihoods can help in decreasing poverty, unemployment and migration as well as increasing social stability. Investments in infrastructure, storage capacity, mechanisation, agricultural extension, markets and agribusiness have been found to increase productivity and minimise post-harvest losses.

A significant feature of the Strategy is the emphasis on keeping strategic food stocks. Recent experiences during COVID-19 and through geopolitics and international commodity prices due to international relations, highlighted this vulnerability. By increasing domestic food production, having adequate storage facilities and strategic food reserves, the country stands the chance of relying less on imports, ensuring the country is more prepared for emergencies or humanitarian crises.

Additionally, there is the need for regional cooperation to improve food security. This involves ECOWAS and the AfCFTA. Ghana supports regional agricultural trade, technology transfer and investment in agriculture. Regional cooperation helps in accessing agricultural inputs and makes the region resilient to food crises.

Rethinking Education as a National Security Imperative

The modern national security concept not only deals with the issue of territorial security but also with the development of human resource for sustainable development and resilience. The NSS recognises the need for a knowledgeable and skilled population to avoid insecurity.

Increasingly, the international security situation demonstrates how nations with well-developed education sectors are best prepared to confront the challenges associated with violent extremism, cybersecurity, disinformation campaigns, pandemics and climate change. The UNESCO report of 2024 on the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4 highlights how transformative education is achieved through inclusive, equitable and lifelong learning systems. For these reasons, education becomes crucial for creating a peaceful, democratic and prosperous society.

According to the NSS, development of human capital is one of the most important strategic resources for Ghana. The importance of quality education lies in the fact that it increases efficiency, innovation and competitiveness while reducing poverty, unemployment and inequalities. Thus, investment in education is directly linked to the stability of the country because of their economic, institutional and democratic effects.

An important topic that must be revisited is the issue of education for citizenship, constitutionalism and national unity. Considering the growing polarisation of democratic societies because of misinformation, hate speech and manipulation on the Internet, students must be taught the values of citizenship and constitutionalism as well as media literacy and critical thinking skills. Education must instil in students’ tolerance, peaceful coexistence and good citizenship.

The NSS also encourages the need to review the education system as a means of countering violent extremism and radicalisation. The proximity of Ghana to the unstable Sahel region makes it necessary to build resilient communities before extremists take root. Educational institutions must, therefore, encourage peace education, dialogue, ethics in leadership and critical thinking to enable the youth to disavow extremism. This strategy aligns with the National Framework on Violent Extremism of Ghana.

The fourth strategic objective for reform is to connect the education system to the requirements of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. There is a change in economy and security systems through digital transformation, artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, robotics and data analysis.

Ghana’s education system must, therefore, shift from knowledge acquisition to innovation, problem solving, digital literacy and technical skills. Enhancing STEM, TVET, cybersecurity and artificial intelligence literacy will enhance Ghana’s competitiveness, while helping in the implementation of the NSS. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has emphasised the importance of digital transformation, teacher development and future skills in education reforms.

The Strategy also acknowledges the significance of research, innovation and evidence-informed policymaking. Universities, research organisations and policy research institutes offer the analytical skills required for predicting future threats, developing innovative technologies and informing national security policy decision-making.

Organisations such as the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, the University of Professional Studies, Accra, and the University of Ghana play a critical role in conducting research in areas such as peacebuilding, governance, cybersecurity, climate security and conflict prevention.

In addition, the process of redefining education must involve embracing lifelong learning that transcends traditional schooling. Education on cybersecurity, disaster preparedness, environmental sustainability, media literacy and community resilience must be included in the national security education. People who are informed about emerging security risks can play a critical role in providing early warnings against such risks.

Health Security and Basic Healthcare

Building on the importance of education in building human capital and enhancing the resilience of the country, health security and basic healthcare form yet another vital pillar of Ghana’s NSS. The outbreak of COVID-19 redefined the concept of national security because it proved infectious diseases, poor health systems and health emergencies could affect governance, economic activities, educational process, social order and national security as much as military attacks.

Health security goes beyond managing health crises to include the ability of the state to prevent, detect and manage public health emergencies in a manner that ensures access to continuous quality healthcare services. The World Health Organization notes resilient health systems founded on primary healthcare and universal health coverage form the best protection for populations from health emergencies. Universal health coverage guarantees individuals have access to essential healthcare services without experiencing financial difficulties and is acknowledged as a crucial factor of national resilience and sustainable development.

The NSS has taken this wider approach in its planning by incorporating aspects of public health readiness, disease surveillance, emergency response and health care provision into its plans for national security. The NSS acknowledges that responding to pandemics, epidemics, antimicrobial resistance, climate-sensitive diseases, and many other biological risks requires collaboration among the Ministry of Health, Ghana Health Service, National Ambulance Service, National Disaster Management Organisation, security agencies, research institutions and local government authorities.

The country’s ability to deal with the spread of COVID-19 exemplifies this process in practice. The government coordinated all the actions by engaging the cooperation among the National Security Council, the Ministry of Health, Ghana Health Service, security services, local government institutions and scientists.

The implementation of measures such as disease surveillance, contact tracing, border control, risk communication, vaccination drives and logistics illustrated the significance of incorporating health organisations into the security structure. It was obvious good health security not only required hospitals and medical practitioners but also depended upon good governance, public trust, leadership and quick decision-making.

The NSS also underscores the need to improve basic and primary healthcare services. Primary healthcare is the first point of contact between citizens and the healthcare system and is essential for preventing diseases, improving reproductive health, childhood care, vaccinations and nutrition.

Improving community-level health services, such as Ghana’s Community-based Health Planning and Services programme, provides access to healthcare services especially in remote areas. Increased primary healthcare improves early detection of diseases, relieves stress on referral hospitals and increases resilience in health emergencies. WHO also considers primary healthcare the best approach to providing universal health coverage and improving health security.

The Strategy also recognises strengthening health security requires investments in health infrastructure and health human resources. Health infrastructure, including adequate healthcare facilities, health technologies, laboratories, emergency medical services and a competent health workforce, enables the country to deal with the outbreaks of diseases and other public health emergencies.

Improving disease surveillance systems, health information technology systems and laboratory capabilities allows early detection of emerging health threats and facilitates evidence-informed decision-making. The 2024 WHO Annual Report on Ghana indicates the country has made great efforts in terms of strengthening emergency preparedness, vaccination, disease surveillance and achieving universal healthcare coverage.

Another crucial aspect of health security issues raised by the Strategy includes the connection between public health and economic resilience. Bad health among the population means low productivity, high costs of healthcare and ultimately low economic growth. However, healthy people will be more effective in contributing to education, agriculture, industry and development. Hence, spending on preventive healthcare, vaccinations, nutrition, hygiene and health promotion produces both health and security dividends for the nation.

The NSS further recognises the effects of climate change and the environment remain major factors affecting public health in the recent past. The increasing temperatures, floods, erratic rainfall and environmental degradation have increased the risk of malaria, cholera, meningitis and many more communicable diseases.

The integration of climate adaptation measures and healthcare, water and sanitation programmes as well as disaster management enables Ghana to prepare for future health challenges and safeguard vulnerable populations.

Environmental and Climate Security

Considering the relevance of health security in safeguarding the wellbeing of the population and strengthening national resilience, environmental and climate security have been essential components of Ghana’s NSS. According to current security doctrine, the impact of environmental degradation and climate change is not merely an environmental issue but a national security issue which can adversely affect economic development, agriculture, public health, politics and society.

Climate change has emerged as a threat multiplier that aggravates the challenges already confronting societies, rather than introducing new threats. Increased warming, unpredictable rainfall patterns, droughts, floods, coastal erosion and land degradation cause harm to agriculture, water availability, energy generation, public health and rural communities.

This creates a situation where the pressure exerted on the environment increases resource competition, internal migration, communal conflicts and economic difficulties, thereby resulting in situations of instability within the nation. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, climate change is affecting human security, livelihood and ecosystem resilience, despite Africa’s low contribution to greenhouse gases.

These factors have led to the incorporation of environmental protection and climate change resilience as key aspects of national security in Ghana’s NSS. The Strategy promotes sustainable use of forest resources, water resources, minerals and biological diversity while enhancing disaster preparedness and climate change adaptation. Unlike other environmental strategies, the NSS considers the environment and national security to be inseparable.

Illegal small-scale mining remains a key environmental security challenge in Ghana. Beyond its environmental consequences, illegal mining has evolved into a multidimensional national security threat. It contaminates major water bodies through mercury pollution, destroys agricultural land, accelerates deforestation and undermines food production and rural livelihoods. Water pollution has increased the cost of water treatment, threatened public health and reduced the availability of safe water for domestic and agricultural use.

Accordingly, addressing the challenge of illegal mining is possible through joint efforts of relevant security apparatuses, environmental bodies, traditional leaders, local authorities and the affected communities. It is clear the NSS advocates for the approach of integrated law enforcement, improved environmental governance and sustainable sources of livelihood for tackling both the symptoms and root causes of environmental degradation.

Examples of climate-induced disasters are yet another indication of the connection between environmental security and national security. One such example is the spillage from the Akosombo Dam in 2023 that displaced many people and destroyed their livelihood.

These scenarios highlight how environmental disasters can result in humanitarian emergencies that have security consequences. In response to this danger, Ghana has improved its strategies in disaster management and climate risk financing from a state of reaction to resilience.

The NSS has further acknowledged the need to address climate security in northern Ghana because of the persistent threats posed by droughts, changes in rainfall patterns and environmental degradation that threaten agriculture and water security. Such factors tend to trigger farmer-herder conflicts and exacerbate poverty levels while exposing people to violent extremism. Recent UNDP policies also call for the integration of climate adaptation in the regional security strategies since insecurity and environment stress are interdependent.

Another important feature of the Strategy is building national resilience against climate-related risks. This includes strengthening early warning systems, flood control measures, climate-resilient infrastructure, ecosystem restoration, sustainable land management and community preparedness.

Environmental resilience requires collaboration among the Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Environmental Protection Agency, Forestry Commission, Water Resources Commission, National Disaster Management Organisation, MMDAs, research institutions and security agencies. Such a Whole-of-Government approach ensures environmental governance supports broader national security objectives.

At the international level, climate security efforts by Ghana are reinforced through cooperation with the United Nations, the African Union and development partners. For instance, the UN Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework recognises climate change resilience, sustainable natural resource management and disaster preparedness as cross-cutting themes that help to achieve development, peace and security objectives.

Likewise, the UNDP climate and environment projects for Ghana are geared towards ensuring green growth and resilience are part of development and security efforts.

Cybersecurity and Information Security

Building on the growing relevance of environmental and climate security, cybersecurity and information security have emerged as indispensable pillars of Ghana’s NSS. The rapid digital transformation of governance, commerce, banking, education, healthcare and national infrastructure has created unprecedented opportunities for economic growth and improved public service delivery.

At the same time, it has expanded the country’s exposure to cybercrime, cyber espionage, ransomware, identity theft, disinformation and attacks on critical national infrastructure. Consequently, the NSS recognises cyberspace as a strategic domain requiring the same level of protection as Ghana’s land, maritime and air domains.

The World Economic Forum identifies cyber insecurity and misinformation among the most significant global risks affecting governments, businesses and societies. As reliance on information technology increases, attacks in cyberspace can threaten financial systems, power grids, healthcare systems, transportation systems, voting procedures, and governance.

Considering these emerging threats, Ghana incorporates cybersecurity into its NSS by focusing on resilience, intelligence coordination and the protection of critical information infrastructure.

One key strength of the Strategy is the awareness that cybersecurity is the responsibility of the entire country. In contrast to entrusting cybersecurity efforts solely with specialised security services, the NSS involves the cooperation of all government ministries, intelligence services, the CSA, the National Signals Bureau, the Ghana Police Service, banks, telecommunication companies, educational institutions and private businesses. The reason for the application of the Whole-of-Government and Whole-of-Society approach is the fact that the majority of critical cyber infrastructure belongs to the private sector.

The enactment of the Cybersecurity Act, 2020 (Act 1038) is one of the most prominent reforms made to enable the implementation of the NSS. This Act led to the creation of the CSA to oversee cybersecurity policies, protect critical information infrastructure, license cybersecurity service providers and promote cyber awareness.

This is complemented by the National Signals Bureau Act, 2020 (Act 1040), which further bolsters the country’s ability to identify and mitigate cyber-based risks. These legislations have enhanced Ghana’s capacity to tackle emerging cyber risks.

The NSS also acknowledges the emergence of cybercrime, including internet fraud, cyber identity theft, phishing, ransomware, business email compromise and electronic payment scams. With the increasing adoption of digital economy involving mobile money transactions, online banking and e-government, there is a need for the safety of digital transactions.

Therefore, the Strategy promotes cyber investigation and forensic work that should be informed by intelligence, regulation and cooperation among law enforcement agencies, financial institutions and telecommunication organisations. According to the 2024 Annual Report of the CSA, there is an increase in the number of cybercrimes in Ghana.

Apart from cybercrime issues, the NSS emphasises the need for information security to ensure the safe functioning of democracy. Although digitalisation has revolutionised the political discussion arena, it has also boosted the spread of false information. The circulation of misinformation, disinformation and the digital manipulation of information can pose risks to the whole process of the constitution.

The NSS highlights the need for resilience and innovation in technologies. Technologies like Artificial Intelligence (AI), cloud computing, big data and Internet of Things (IoT) present numerous opportunities to improve intelligence activities, emergency response, border security and citizen services.

However, these technologies are associated with risks such as cyberattacks through AI, deepfakes and automated information warfare. As such, the Strategy recommends continuous investment in cybersecurity research, workforce and technological innovation to equip Ghana to handle emerging cyber threats. The International Telecommunication Union notes national cybersecurity calls for continuous investments in legislation, technical capabilities, collaboration and public education.

Protection of Critical National Infrastructure

Critical National Infrastructure (CNI) protection has emerged as a critical strategic pillar of Ghana’s NSS. Contemporary societies rely on interrelated systems of physical and informational infrastructure to sustain governance, economy, provision of public services and national defence. Hence, any disruptions in this infrastructure caused by terrorism, cyberattacks, sabotage, organised crime, natural disasters or environmental causes may have repercussions that extend to many societal sectors.

CNI refers to the resources, infrastructure and networks whose disruption or destruction could adversely affect national security, public safety, economic stability and  government operations. Such assets include electricity production and distribution facilities, petroleum and natural gas facilities, water supply facilities, communications networks, seaports, airports, transportation networks, financial institutions, hospitals, computerised information networks and key government buildings. It is imperative that such assets be protected because they constitute the basis on which the functioning of the state depends.

The NSS employs a risk-based and holistic strategy towards the protection of critical infrastructure. As opposed to being concerned only about physical security measures, the NSS understands there are multi-dimensional risks that threaten such infrastructure in terms of cyberattacks, insider threats, disruption of supply chains, environmental factors and transnational organised crime. This Whole-of-Government approach ensures preventive planning, threat assessment, emergency response and business continuity are integrated across sectors.

Energy infrastructure is also relevant to this integrated approach. Strategic facilities in Ghana such as the Akosombo, Kpong and Bui hydroelectric dams, thermal power plants, offshore petroleum fields, gas-processing facilities and the national electricity transmission network are indispensable for sustaining economic production, healthcare, communications and national defence.

Any prolonged disruption, whether caused by cyberattacks, sabotage or natural disaster, has immediate consequences for public safety and economic stability. Accordingly, the NSS encourages coordinated protection involving the Ministry of Energy, Volta River Authority, Ghana Grid Company, Ghana National Petroleum Corporation, Ghana Armed Forces, Ghana Police Service, intelligence agencies and the CSA.

Transport infrastructure is equally important to national resilience. The Tema and Takoradi ports and the Kotoka International Airport play a crucial role as gateways for trade, investments and interconnectivity in the region.

Any disruptions to their operations would disrupt supply chain operations, lower revenue generation and undermine Ghana’s position as an economic gateway to the region. Considering this, the NSS provides for an integrated approach to security that would ensure protection of such strategic assets without hindering legitimate business.

Another significant feature highlighted in the Strategy is the security of Critical Information Infrastructure (CII). The digitisation of government operations, financial institutions, telecoms, healthcare and the energy sector has exposed the country to cyberattacks. The NSS is complemented by the Cybersecurity Act, 2020 (Act 1038), which establishes the legal basis for the identification and protection of CII. Moreover, the CSA has taken steps to ensure risk assessment, incident reporting, cybersecurity and cooperation among operators of essential services.

Another important element of CII protection relates to public-private partnerships. Most critical infrastructure, especially in telecommunications, banking, electricity and digitisation sectors, belong to or is operated by the private sector.

Thus, effective protection requires ongoing information exchange, risk assessment and incident response coordination between government agencies and private businesses. The same holds true for the international experience where cooperation between government and infrastructure owners plays a vital role in enhancing resilience.

Lastly, it is evident the protection of Ghana’s critical infrastructure involves collaboration at the regional and international levels. Ghana’s memberships in such organisations the ECOWAS and the AU and involvement in the Gulf of Guinea maritime security framework and global cybersecurity alliances assists the country in intelligence sharing and cooperative responses to threats.

Regional and International Cooperation

Contemporary security challenges are transnational; therefore, addressing them demands regional and international cooperation. One pillar of the NSS is cooperation to enhance national security, foster peace and strengthen Ghana’s international engagements.

The NSS embodies the idea that inter-state security strategies work better than individual national security efforts. In the contemporary world, many dangers are transnational, and they take advantage of the discrepancies between national legislation and border control mechanisms.

The use of regional and international alliances enables countries to improve information sharing, cooperate on law enforcement, improve border management and deal with security issues collectively. It is through such an approach that Ghana can take advantage of the expertise and assistance of other states.

Regarding regional partnerships, ECOWAS remains the leading security partner for Ghana. ECOWAS has put in place the required arrangements for conflict prevention, mediation, early warning, peacekeeping operations and counterterrorism activities. Member states provide one another with intelligence on possible political unrest, violence, organised crime and humanitarian disasters. Ghana’s participation in ECOWAS activities indicates the NSS’s understanding of the fact that regional cooperation enhances national security more than unilateral actions can do.

Additionally, the NSS view cooperation with the AU as a strategic endeavour. The Peace and Security Architecture of the AU offers mechanisms for conflict prevention, mediation, peace support operations and post-conflict reconstruction at the continental level.

Ghana has been supporting AU’s initiatives aimed at ensuring constitutional governance, democratic governance and peaceful conflict resolution and has contributed personnel to AU and UN peacekeeping operations. In addition, Ghana’s participation in continental efforts enhances the country’s foreign policy of ensuring regional stability, since conflicts in other parts of the continent can have transnational implications for the country’s national security.

At the international level, the NSS underscores the relevance of the cooperation between the country and the UN. As a result of Ghana’s years-long involvement in UN peace missions, the professional skills of the country’s security structures have improved, and diplomatic alliances have been strengthened.

Moreover, the UN contributes to Ghana’s security in other areas, including counterterrorism, maritime security, cybersecurity, disaster risk reduction, climate change and public health preparedness. With the help of such organisations as the UNDP, the UN Office of Counter-Terrorism and the UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Ghana benefits from technical assistance and institutional capacity building.

Regional and international cooperation also plays a significant role in maritime security. Ghana’s economy relies extensively on maritime trade, petroleum exploration and fishing in its offshore waters. The Yaoundé Maritime Security Cooperation, through ECOWAS and the Economic Community of Central African States and Gulf of Guinea countries, fights against piracy and robbery in the high seas, as well as illegal fishing and maritime trafficking.

Additionally, the NSS acknowledges international cooperation transcends conventional military and security concerns. Cooperation on cybersecurity, climate change, health issues, energy security and food security has become increasingly significant. Cooperation with institutions such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, WHO, FAO helps to improve Ghana’s capacity to cope with these challenges.

Challenges Affecting the Effective Implementation of the National Security Strategy

The implementation of the NSS depends entirely on the efficiency of domestic institutions in responding to the evolving security environment. Although the NSS provides a comprehensive framework for promoting good governance, peace and national resilience, several institutional, operational and emerging challenges persistently affect its effective implementation. Addressing these constraints is essential if the Strategy is to achieve its long-term objective of ensuring “a secure and prosperous Ghana, with regional, continental and global reach and influence”.

One principal challenge is institutional coordination. The NSS adopts a Whole-of-Government approach that requires collaboration among ministries, departments, agencies and security institutions. In practice, however, differences in organisational cultures, overlapping mandates, bureaucratic procedures and resource competition have impeded effective coordination.

Contemporary security challenges demand actions from multiple organisations. Poor coordination slows down decision-making and information sharing. Strengthening inter-agency planning, integrated intelligence assessments and joint operational procedures, therefore, remain critical for the successful implementation of the Strategy.

A second challenge concerns resource and capacity constraints. The successful execution of a NSS is dependent on continuous investment in manpower, training, logistics, surveillance equipment, border security, cybersecurity and readiness. There are funding constraints for security organs, especially those at the regional and district levels.

For instance, REGSECs and DISECs, which play crucial roles in early warning and conflict prevention, often require additional financial, logistical and technical support to discharge their responsibilities effectively. Long-term implementation, therefore, depends on viewing security expenditure as a strategic investment in national development rather than merely a recurrent public expense.

The dynamic character of emerging security threats is another aspect that makes implementation difficult. Since the adoption of the NSS in 2020, the security situation in Ghana has been heavily impacted by the threat posed by AI, advanced cyberattacks, deepfake technology, ransomware, crypto-enabled crimes and malicious information warfare.

In addition, extremist organisations active in the Central Sahel have been extending their range of operation, thus, posing security threats to coastal West African countries. This calls for regular updates to the NSS to reflect current happenings.

Political continuity and policy implementation remain another set of challenges that impede the implementation of the NSS. The NSS is a long-term policy framework, therefore, the successful implementation of such a strategy may take longer than one tenure.

In instances of regime change, policy priorities or resource allocation, the implementation of such an agenda may be affected. It is, thus, crucial for the state to be politically committed to the implementation of the NSS irrespective of the political party in government.

Another issue is the awareness and participation of the citizenry. Even though the NSS is based on the Whole-of-Society approach, the citizenry perceives national security as a concept or a responsibility entrusted to the armed forces, police, and intelligence organisations.

This can be attributed to the lack of knowledge about the Strategy among the citizenry. Public education campaigns, civic engagement and strategic communication are, therefore, required to strengthen national ownership of the Strategy and enhance trust between citizens and security institutions.

Finally, rapid urbanisation, demographic change and socio-economic inequalities create new security pressures. Youth unemployment, informal urban settlements, organised crime, digital fraud and widening economic disparities potentially increase social tensions and reduce resilience against criminal and extremist recruitment. It is obvious efforts aimed at tackling such issues would require sustained integration of security policies with national development plans and job creation.

Ghana’s NSS constitutes a radical departure from the nation’s previous concept of national security. Unlike before when national security was limited in meaning to military defense, intelligence and law enforcement, the NSS has defined national security in a broader sense that incorporates good governance, economic development, resilience and regional collaboration.

The importance of the Strategy is based on the understanding that national security is more than safeguarding sovereignty and territorial integrity; it concerns enhancing democracy and securing human rights.

This analysis has shown the NSS is one of the most effective mechanisms for fostering good governance, peace and political stability. It achieves this by emphasising constitutional governance, institutional accountability, cooperation among agencies and citizen participation. Its preventive approach to conflicts, electoral security, counterterrorism and intelligence coordination also enhances the capacity of Ghana to manage threats before they escalate.

The enduring value of Ghana’s NSS therefore lies in its ability to connect state security with human security and national development. When applied effectively, it can be used as a tool for maintaining constitutional democracy and building national resilience towards lasting peace and stability.

Emmanuel Wekem KOTIA is a retired Major General of the Ghana Armed Forces with over 41 years of distinguished military service. Kotia chaired the working group that drafted the first National Security Strategy of Ghana which was launched in the year 2020.

He is currently a consultant in strategy, security, and defence, and a respected international security analyst, lecturer, and speaker with expertise in international security/politics, peace operations, intelligence governance, and border management. He is the Founding Commissioner-General of the Ghana Boundary Commission and holds a First-Class BA in Political Science and a PhD in Political Science from the University of Ghana, as well as an MSc in Global Security from Cranfield University, United Kingdom.

He has taught International Security and Conflict Management at Kennesaw State University (USA) and the University of Bedfordshire (UK). Emmanuel Kotia has extensive United Nations peacekeeping experience, having served in missions in Lebanon, Liberia, Western Sahara, Cambodia, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. He has published widely on peace operations, terrorism, intelligence oversight, security and democratic governance, and security studies. His book, Ghana Armed Forces in Lebanon and Liberia Peace Operations, is widely used in postgraduate studies.

He currently serves as an Adjunct Lecturer at the University of Ghana School of Law and the University of Professional Studies, Accra, where he teaches courses in national security, peace, security, and intelligence. His forthcoming books, to be published by Bloomsbury Publishing (USA), are National Security Frameworks for African States and Establishing National Boundary Institutions in Africa.

Email: [email protected]

Website: Emmanuel Kotia (emmakotia.org)