Considering the increasing complexity and interdependence in the global security realm, the development of a progressive National Security Strategy (NSS) remains an important framework capable of addressing such complexities. In traditional security contexts, national security narrowly concerns defence against military threats and attacks to the territorial jurisdiction of a state.

Modern realities have resulted in the emergence of new security challenges, including terrorism, transnational organized crime, economic challenges, diseases, energy insecurity, cyberspace security, climate change, and other human security challenges.

1 In such a constantly changing setting, a NSS becomes a strategic framework that outlines the security priorities of the state and its perception of threats, as well as the coordination of different agencies involved in national security.

The NSS, thus, offers the strategic direction to policymaking and other activities related to security matters, as well as linking security strategies to the overall policies of the state on governance and development. More importantly, the modern NSS considers both conventional and unconventional dimensions of security, thus, becoming holistic and peopleoriented.

2. For many African countries, the need for a holistic NSS becomes even more crucial. In such circumstances, In drafting NSSs the challenges that arise from national security potentially become deeply connected with failures of governance, economic disparities, and regional instability.

Therefore, the formulation of a workable strategy in such situations becomes crucial in dealing with both the symptoms and the causes of insecurity. The significance of a NSS in the modern-day statecraft is the subject matter of this paper, especially in the context of national security expansion, good security sector governance, improved coherence and coordination, enhanced early warning and prevention systems, and democratic accountability.

The paper holistically discusses the concept of NSSs and their contribution to achieving peaceful coexistence among African nations. Historically, national security has been defined as a purely military defence against enemy invasion and maintaining sovereignty. With the emergence of new threats such as terrorism, cyberattacks, environmental threats, and socio-economic threats, the need arises for a new dimension of NSS.

3 As such, this model views NSS as a holistic framework for achieving security through the integration of security governance and other aspects such as politics, economy, society, and technology.

Theoretical Foundations The conceptual framework is grounded in three complementary theoretical perspectives, namely Human Security Paradigm, Securitization Theory, and Security Sector Governance. The Human Security Paradigm is considered the cornerstone of the new thinking on NSSs in Africa, 1Occasional Paper 1/26 June 2026 as it shifts the emphasis from state protection to the security and welfare of people. Human security has evolved from a broad normative concept into an increasingly operational framework that informs contemporary security governance.

Recent scholarship emphasizes its relevance in addressing complex and interconnected threats, including pandemics, climate change, and conflicts.

4 Furthermore, the integration of the theory into peace operations and institutional structures reflects a shift toward practical application in security policy.

5 At the same time, efforts to develop measurable indicators and link human security to resilience and sustainable development underscore the growing policy utility of the theory. The importance of human security in Africa is even more prominent since the sources of insecurity and volatility stem from structural challenges ranging from poverty, unemployment, poor governance, and environmental concerns.

Economic exclusion and youth unemployment have contributed to recruitment into violent extremist groups in Nigeria, while environmental stressors such as drought and climate change persistently drive resource-based conflicts and violence in the Sahel region.

6 Crises relating to health challenges, including the current coronavirus crisis, reveal inadequacies in dealing with such issues by individual nations. It is clear from the trends that there is a strong relationship between security and development. The inclusion of human security in the NSS of individual nations ensures reactive actions, rather than proactive actions, are not favoured.

Human security helps to advance the vision of the AU through its Agenda 2063. The AU recognizes the interlinkages among security, development, and peace as mutually reinforcing pillars essential for achieving stability and sustainable progress on the continent.

7 The Securitization Theory offers an important framework that can be applied to analyse the construction and prioritization of different issues under NSSs. According to the theory, proposed by Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, and Jaap De Wilde, the concept of security is not tangible, rather a social construct, where political actors identify specific issues as threats that demand extraordinary measures beyond the ordinary processes of politics.

8 Issues such as terrorism, migration, and cybersecurity threats are often constructed as security concerns through the performative process of “speech acts” whereby political actors frame the processes as existential threats requiring extraordinary measures.

9 Regarding African states, the process of securitization is embodied in how governments treat terrorism, insurgency, and political unrest as existential threats.

When dealing with militant organizations such as Boko Haram and Islamic State West Africa Province, the application of securitization as a concept helps in creating a narrative through which military force deployment is justified.

10 While the practice of securitization is an excellent approach of generating quick solutions and promoting unity, there are also downsides to this approach. The abuse of securitization and the adoption of policies that are overly militarized potentially infringe on civil liberties and the neglect of civilian conflict resolution methods. Therefore, the integration of the securitization 2Kotia concept into an NSS requires proper management and careful analysis. States intending to adopt this strategy ensure threats are objectively determined and subjected to democratic processes of checks and balances. In African states where issues of governance exist, excessive securitization could exacerbate the challenge because the risk of abuse of power will be much higher.

The Security Sector Governance (SSG) theory plays an integral role in the development and enforcement of sound national security strategies through its focus on the core values of accountability, transparency, rule of law, and civilian control of security organizations. SSG is not only concerned with how efficiently the military, along with other security forces, performs but is also interested in ensuring sound governance of these security forces through different entities such as the executive, parliament, judiciary, and civil society.

11 However, in the case of Africa, SSG takes on a special significance due to certain past challenges linked to inadequate institutional control, political interference with the security sector, and lack of oversight mechanisms. It is imperative for states to improve security sector governance for the purpose of improving both institutional capacity and democratic legitimacy. It must, therefore, be noted certain African countries, including Ghana, South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya, have made considerable strides toward institutionalizing civilian control over the security sector.

12 In contrast, the lack of proper SSG in certain states has been a major cause of abuse of power, human rights violations, and loss of public trust. The integration of SSG into the NSSs of African states means security agencies will conduct themselves within the bounds of democracy and legality. Consequently, the danger of misuse of power will be minimized while public trust in government will be increased. The integration of SSG into NSSs enhances professionalism, coordination, and strategic orientation among security agencies.

13 More importantly, SSG serves to check securitization efforts by ensuring democratic control and institutional checks.

As more attention is drawn to national security, it becomes obvious the formulation of a consistent NSS serves as an important framework to build peace, stability, and efficient governance in Africa. Facing challenges as diverse as terrorism, insurgency, climate change, or cyber insecurity, African countries require an instrument that would help to coordinate their response to multiple and often intertwined threats. It is possible to discuss the importance of NSSs for African states with reference to several aspects.

Defining a Broad Vision of National Security A relevance of an NSS includes the ability to provide a broad concept of national security that involves different dimensions of the security of a nation. While in the past, security was seen only in terms of military defence and territorial integrity of the state, modern concepts of the NSS involve the identification of numerous threats, starting from political and economic instability, and going 3Occasional Paper 1/26 June 2026 through social challenges, environmental issues, or digital threats. Modern views on security have evolved into a multidimensional perception to include the security of individuals.

14 From a practical perspective, this expanded vision makes it possible for governments to focus on and coordinate national responses to such interconnected issues. In other words, security issues such as terrorism, cyber insecurity, and climate change conflicts cannot be resolved through security mechanisms alone; instead, an integrated approach must be adopted to tackle these multifaceted issues. In modern-day policy discourse, it is stressed that humanitarianism, development, and peacebuilding should all be coordinated in an effective strategy.

15 Indeed, the need for such a holistic perspective is even more pronounced in the case of African states. Sources of insecurity are not few within the region, and these are a result of bad governance, social and economic inequalities, and environmental challenges, among many other interconnected elements that lead to insecurity. In other instances, institutional weaknesses, unemployment, and exclusion contribute to frustrations that result in conflicts, including recruitment of people into terrorist organizations. Therefore, the traditional approach militarization remains limited to tackle insecurity. An example of the effectiveness of a holistic perspective of security can be found in South Africa. The country has developed its own security strategy by embracing a strategic perspective of security, whereby developmental issues and human security considerations are integrated into the security framework of the country, understanding that lasting peace entails not only tackling immediate threats but also addressing structural factors such as socioeconomic disparities and governance challenges.

16 Similarly, the NSS of Ghana is largely peopleoriented in nature, focusing on human security, socio-economic stability, and governance issues. Such strategies embody a new paradigm in which NSSs do not only serve as frameworks of state security but also as governance mechanisms for integrating security, development, and democracy in managing threats and their underlying causes.

17 Ultimately, the creation of a comprehensive vision for national security through a NSS potentially allows African states to enhance existing reactive and fragmented approaches to addressing security challenges the adoption of more strategic, allinclusive, and preventive measures. Enhancing Security Sector Governance Efficiency and Accountability An effective NSS acts as a useful instrument to ensure the enhancement the efficiency and effectiveness of SSG through the development of an accurate definition of the mandate, functions, and responsibilities of security agencies, intelligence service, and other governmental institutions responsible for border controls and law enforcement. Overlapping responsibilities and the lack of coherence among African security organizations and agencies have hampered their effectiveness and accountability. Through a clear and coherent NSS, states can overcome complex security challenges with efficient SSG which improves accountability, efficiency, and transparency in the implementation of SSG 4Kotia measures.

18 However, besides institutional cooperation, NSS mechanisms are indispensable in facilitating the integration of systems of oversight and accountability into the security sector. Supervisory and accountability mechanisms refer to legislative, judicial, and executive supervision and the establishment of independent supervisory bodies. These systems play a key role in guaranteeing the security sector functions within the legal framework, respects human rights, and is held accountable to the civilian population. In this regard, it is imperative to mention the relevance of monitoring intelligence and security services to avoid abuse of power and guarantee the credibility of the democratic process. This is because SSG systems institutionalize accountability, transparency, and civilian oversight of coercive institutions; thus, SSG systems not only act as a framework for improving efficiency in security operations but also as a moral instrument for limiting the negative consequences of securitization and authoritarianism through adherence to the rule of law, human rights principles, and democratic oversight.

19 From an African perspective, the relevance of enhancing SSG through NSS cannot be overemphasized due to the history of military interventions in political processes, inadequate civilian control, and lack of transparency in security matters. The process of institutionalization through governance will ensure effective and well-disciplined security agencies are established through NSS. Indeed, Ghana, Senegal, and South Africa have recorded great success in ensuring democratic civil-military relations through constitutional provisions for civilian control over the security agencies, and legislative control through the establishment of legislative committees that supervise internal security, defence, and intelligence matters.

20 From the point of view of SSG, this measure enhances the level of transparency, accountability, and supremacy of civilians over the security agencies, thus, enhancing civil-military relations, which have contributed to the reputation of Ghana, Senegal, and South Africa as relatively stable and democratic countries. Additionally, SSG enhances strategic coherence and policy coordination in security matters. Through the integration of operational measures into strategic national priorities, SSG leads to efficient and effective security measures. Increasing Effectiveness Through Comprehensive Threat Management Increasing effectiveness through comprehensive threat management constitutes a core function of a structured NSS, particularly within a security environment characterized by complex, interconnected, and transnational risks; drawing on multidimensional security and SSG perspectives. Such strategies move beyond narrow, statecentric security paradigms to the integration of conventional and non-conventional threats, including terrorism, organized crime, pandemics, environmental risks, and economic instability, into a unified governance framework, thereby enhancing the capacity of the state to anticipate, prevent, and respond to diverse threats while strengthening national resilience, institutional coherence, and democratic accountability.

21 In 5Occasional Paper 1/26 June 2026 the African context, the key advantage of this approach is the promotion of coordination across government sectors. A robust NSS creates an integrated framework of governance which ensures the defence, intelligence, policing, and civilian agencies work in tandem, resulting in effective information exchange, collaboration, and response. From the perspective of SSG, such integration helps improve institutional efficacy. As seen from certain African states, the fight against terrorism is becoming more consistent, involving cooperation among several security services in dealing with the consequences of violent extremism in the Sahel region, thus, promoting early warning systems and responses while minimizing fragmentation and inter-service rivalry.

22 Comprehensive threat management also strengthens strategic foresight by incorporating risk assessment and anticipatory planning. Indeed, the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has proved the criticality of incorporating unconventional threats to national security because states that effectively coordinated crisis management could cope with its consequences successfully. Furthermore, it is imperative to focus on the underlying causes, including poverty, inequality, and weak governance, for better efficiency of the national security system. Based on the principles of human security and SSG, it is vital to employ a multi-faceted strategy to security issues with the incorporation of socio-economic approaches. The case of Nigeria shows that, in fighting insurgents like Boko Haram, it is necessary to combine military and socio-economic measures since their activities have a deep social basis in the form of unemployment and poor governance.

23 Hence, the integration of the fight against both immediate threats and contributory factors is crucial for ensuring greater sustainability of efforts to restore stability in African states. Enhancing Strategic Coordination and Coherence The process of enhancing strategic coordination and coherence remains a key function of a structured NSS, especially in situations where different organizations participate in national security management based on the concepts of strategic security governance and policy coherence. Strategic coordination refers to a situation where policies, structures, and activities are synchronized in relation to national security, whereas coherence ensures all these activities work together to promote a coherent national agenda. Without coordination and coherence, duplication and policy contradictions become inherent, thereby reducing efficiency.

24 A structured NSS ensures a governance system that unifies the functions of all stakeholders, including the armed forces, intelligence agency, law enforcement agencies, and government bodies, to encourage a holistic management approach to national security issues. From the SSG perspective, such an integrated system improves coordination, responsibility, and policy consistency within the security arrangement. The integration of the system allows for information exchange, planning, and the implementation of policies, which are crucial in tackling sophisticated and multi-dimensional threats. In the African setting, such countries 6Kotia as Nigeria, South Africa, and Kenya; and interagency cooperation structures such as national security councils and sectoral committees are instrumental in encouraging cooperation among defense, interior, and intelligence agencies.

25 Such coordination is possible by virtue of the ability of such frameworks to coordinate approaches toward addressing threats such as terrorism, organized crime, and maritime insecurity. It ensures strategic consistency, implying NSSs should be aligned with the development and foreign policies of a nation. It ensures security strategies do not contradict other aspects of government policy but are harmonized within the larger framework of socio-economic development. This is especially relevant in Africa, where security issues are often associated with development challenges. The NSS in South Africa and Ghana focus on human security and development challenges.

26 Additionally, effective coordination is not limited to internal security management alone, but also includes cooperation on a regional and international levels based on concepts such as SSG and regional security cooperation. For example, ECOWAS plays an important role in ensuring policy coordination, joint actions, and intelligence exchange among members states through institutionalized coordination and cooperative security arrangements. Through such regional cooperation, the region effectively counters common threats of terrorism and transnational organized crime.

27 Coordination at the regional level is instrumental in enhancing collective security and ensuring national security strategies are congruent with regional security strategies. In sum, enhancing coordination and coherence in strategic planning through NSSs ensures sound decision-making, resource efficiency, and synergy within institutions. With all parts of the security system operating under one strategic plan, states can cope with both existing and future security challenges. Strengthening Early Warning and Preventive Security Early warning and threat prevention represent a crucial element of NSS, especially when security challenges become more complicated and transnational, changing their character quickly. Modern security strategies have included mechanisms of early warning and preventive security because the mechanisms make it possible for countries to detect potential threats early and implement measures that allow the countries to prevent such threats from escalating. Principles of human security and anticipation-based governance provide the basis for early warning and preventive mechanisms, which enables countries to move from being reactive to being proactive in national security.

28 This may include the use of strategic intelligence and surveillance systems alongside communitybased reporting systems in identifying emerging threats such as terrorism, political instability, and intercommunal conflicts. In several instances in Africa, localized socio-political conditions form the basis of insecurity; as such, early communitybased warning systems are an integral part of the NSS framework, in line with SSG principles of human security and bottom-up conflict prevention. In countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, 7Occasional Paper 1/26 June 2026 and Kenya, various institutions have played a significant role in the identification of early warning signs of conflicts, such as chieftaincy conflicts, political tensions during elections, and other intercommunal disputes.

29 Preventive security is built upon early warning mechanisms by taking proactive steps toward addressing the root causes and triggers of the insecurities identified. This could be in the form of diplomatic measures, specific development projects targeting the underlying causes of insecurity, mediation efforts, and others. Effective preventive security requires enhanced coordination and adequate political will, both of which are key components of SSG and, therefore, in the general NSS framework. Regarding SSG and the linkage between governance and security, the role of coordinating organizations in promoting policy implementation cannot be understated, whereas political leadership and national ownership are crucial elements that ensure commitment, resource mobilization, and continuity are achieved; otherwise, preventive measures will be disintegrated and ineffective, thereby making sustainable security goals unattainable.

30 In this regard, regional endeavours of the AU are regarded as examples of how NSSs allow preventive security actions to transcend national borders through institutionalized regional cooperation. Based on the principles of SSG and the concept of the regional security complex, frameworks such as the ECOWAS Early Warning and Response Network (ECOWARN) serve as systematic means of conflict early warning, analysis, and preventive diplomacy and intervention at the regional and national levels. ECOWARN, developed within the ECOWAS framework of conflict prevention, combines data gathering, analysis, and action coordination through regional and national networks, hence, fostering anticipatory governance, improving collective security, and facilitating a more coordinated and proactive approach to transnational risks.

31 In addition, improved early warning and preventive security help states cope with non-conventional security threats. Early detection and prevention were particularly crucial in managing health crises during the outbreak of the coronavirus. Countries with efficient health surveillance and emergency management systems managed the outbreak and minimized its negative socio-economic effects. In this regard, NSS frameworks must consider the inclusion of health security and disaster risk management as key elements of early warning systems. Significantly, for effective early warning and preventive security mechanisms, it is necessary to have efficient information exchange structures and build trust among different actors, including government departments, civil society, and neighbouring countries. The intelligence gathered must be timely and actionable, while decisions must be made through a coordinated effort and based on well-functioning information systems. Without such trust and coordination, it becomes difficult for early warning systems to function effectively. Moreover, just like human security approaches, preventative security measures must address any structural challenges that potentially lead to insecurity.

32 Overall, the enhancement of early warning and 8Kotia preventive security through NSSs improves the capability of African states to anticipate and deal with threats before the threats escalate. Fostering Democratic Oversight and Accountability Democratisation of supervision and accountability processes is another fundamental aspect of a structured NSS, especially in democracies where the security sector requires subordination to civilian authority and the rule of law for legitimacy reasons. Indeed, oversight of security sectors is a component of a NSS, as the security bodies, military forces, intelligence services, and law-enforcement agencies act under the supervision and oversight that guarantee transparency, protection of human rights, and accountability toward their elected superiors and citizens. Being based on SSG, such oversight ensures civilian control, compliance with the rule of law, and restraint against coercion. Through the establishment of a NSS, the such principles are institutionalized and become part of security governance.

33 The legislative scrutiny aspect, among other dimensions, plays a crucial role in ensuring legislation has the authority to examine the policies of security, authorize funds, and ensure accountability for the actions of security agencies. In most democratic African countries, there is an increasing trend in the involvement of legislative committees of defence, interior, and intelligence affairs in the examination of security budgets, policies, and activities, thus, enhancing transparency, accountability, and civilian control of the security sector. From the SSG perspective, legislative oversight mechanisms are necessary in ensuring security organisations maintain democratic checks and balances and operate within the law.

34 This legislative involvement further boosts confidence among the general populace concerning state structures. Likewise, in the UK, formal oversight mechanisms involving structures such as the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament serve to oversee and ensure intelligence organisations work in line with both legality and ethical considerations. From an SSG perspective, oversight mechanisms are essential for strengthening democracy, transparency, and civilian control of national security through intelligence organisations. Established through legislation and responsible for managing the policy, budgeting, administration, and operation of intelligence agencies such as internal intelligence, external intelligence, and signals intelligence, the Committee serves to illustrate how oversight institutions in an NSS architecture ensure legitimacy.

35 In addition to legislative scrutiny, democratic accountability in the context of the NSS architecture is achieved through an interlocking set of measures encompassing judicial oversight, independent bodies, and civil society participation. Utilising SSG and human security approaches, it can be argued that, taken together, these processes guarantee adherence to the rule of law and responsiveness to the social concerns of security organs. The judiciary is indispensable in protecting statutory rights by scrutinising the legal soundness of the conduct of security services. At the same time, independent bodies, ranging from the ombudsman’s office and national human 9Occasional Paper 1/26 June 2026 rights institutions to others, provide opportunities to probe into possible instances of abuse and bring accountability for them. Additionally, civil society actors and the media serve as indispensable agents of democratic oversight through advocacy, information provision, and reformist activities.

36 A structured NSS enables the development of an accountability culture in the security sector through the promotion of professionalism and strong internal control systems. From the perspective of SSG, such processes are vital in ensuring adherence to the principles of rule of law, respect for human rights, and proper functioning of the security organisations. Activities aimed at the formulation of codes of conduct, human rights training, and the implementation of internal audits and control mechanisms facilitate the development of professionalism among members of security structures and minimize possibilities for abuse, misconduct, and corrupt practices. These issues are especially relevant in certain African countries, characterised by a lack of democratic accountability due to their legacy of military regimes.

37 Ultimately, the creation of a NSS for the promotion of democratic control and accountability makes the security sector not only more effective but also legitimate. Through the inclusion of transparency, adherence to law, and the element of civilian control in the security governance process, governments ensure the quest for national security is consistent with democratic principles.

A structured NSS is a strategic framework toward the realisation of effective security governance. Drawing on the ideas of human security and SSG, the NSS broadens the scope of security from security protection into the realm of good governance and economics, and ensuring institutional operations are mandate-driven, coordinated, and democratic.

As far as policies are concerned, the NSS ensures efficiency by applying a comprehensive approach to government policymaking and preventative measures such as early warning systems. Most importantly, the NSS acts as a corrective framework by constraining securitisation processes to ensure threat identification and handling adhere to legal standards, institutional oversight, and accountability to the public.

Such measures help mitigate the expansion of security power and bolster democratic legitimacy. The NSS helps strengthen strategic coherence and enhance security by ensuring a coordinated response to border threats at the national, regional, and international levels. However, it is implementation that matters.

Source: Emmanuel Wekem Kotia PhD, Consultant in Strategy, Security and Defence